Models of Learner-Centered Instruction
Helen Griffin
Region IV Education Service Center, Texas
This paper will use the basic principles of learner-centered instruction to examine Project-Based
Learning, Differentiated Instruction, Cooperative Learning and Layered Curriculum as models of
learner-centered instruction. Learner-centered instruction views K-12 students as responsible
owners and managers of their own learning process, nurtures the students' need for autonomy,
shifts control from teachers to students, and involves the teacher as coach, facilitator and
manager (Guthrie, 1997). As a result of learner-centered instruction, students take responsibility
for their own learning, develop a sense of the importance of learning for understanding, and
begin to understand themselves as learners (Bolhuis, 1996).
Project-Based Learning
Project-Based Learning (PBL) is an instructional approach that emphasizes learning activities that are long-term, interdisciplinary, student-centered, and integrated with real world questions, issues and problems. PBL motivates learners by engaging them in their own learning, provides opportunities for learners to pursue their own interests and questions and make decisions about how they will find answers and solve problems (Taylor, 1995). PBL develops real world skills such as the ability to work well with others, make thoughtful decisions, take initiative, and solve complex problems.
In the learning environments of classroom, school and community, Project-Based Learning
provides many unique opportunities for teachers to build relationships with students and other
teachers. Teachers become less of an information provider and more of a coach, facilitator, and
co-learner (Temple & Rodero, 1995). There is a growing body of research that supports the use
of PBL. Schools where PBL is practiced find a decline in absenteeism, an increase in
cooperative learning skills, and improvement in student achievement. When technology is used
to promote critical thinking and communication, these benefits are enhanced. (Lucas, 2003).
Differentiated Instruction
Differentiated Instruction is a learner-centered model that responds to student differences; it is a way of thinking about teaching and learning that values the individual and can be translated into classroom practices in many ways. Whenever a teacher matches content, process, products and learning environment to student's readiness level (e.g., Vygotsky, 1986), individual interest (e.g., Czikszentmihalyi, 1997) or learning profile (e.g., Sternberg, Torff, & Grigorenko, 1998), the teacher is differentiating instruction.
Content can be defined as what the student needs to learn or how the student will get access to the information. Examples of differentiating content include the following: (1) using reading materials at varying readability levels; (2) putting text materials on tape; (3) using spelling or vocabulary lists at readiness levels of students; (4) presenting ideas through both auditory and visual means; (5) using reading buddies; and (6) meeting with small groups to re-teach an idea or skill for struggling learners, or to extend the thinking or skills of advanced learners.
Process can be defined as activities in which the student engages in order to make sense of or master the content. Examples of differentiating process or activities include the following: (1) using tiered activities through which all learners work with the same important understandings and skills, but proceed with different levels of support, challenge, or complexity; (2) providing interest centers that encourage students to explore subsets of the class topic of particular interest to them; (3) developing personal agendas (task lists written by the teacher and containing both in-common work for the whole class and work that addresses individual needs of learners) to be completed either during specified agenda time or as students complete other work early; (4) offering manipulatives or other hands-on supports for students who need them; and (5) varying the length of time a student may take to complete a task in order to provide additional support for a struggling learner or to encourage an advanced learner to pursue a topic in greater depth.
Products can be defined as culminating projects that ask the student to rehearse, apply, and extend what he or she has learned in a unit. Examples of differentiating products include the following: (1) giving students options of how to express required learning (e.g., create a puppet show, write a letter, or develop a mural with labels); (2) using rubrics that match and extend students' varied skills levels; (3) allowing students to work alone or in small groups on their products; and (4) encouraging students to create their own product assignments as long as the assignments contain required elements.
Learning environment can be defined as the way the classroom works and feels. Examples of differentiating learning environment include the following: (1) making sure there are places in the room to work quietly and without distraction, as well as places that invite student collaboration; (2) providing materials that reflect a variety of cultures and home settings; (3) setting out clear guidelines for independent work that matches individual needs; (4) developing routines that allow students to get help when teachers are busy with other students and cannot help them immediately; and (5) helping students understand that some learners need to move around to learn, while others do better sitting quietly (Tomlinson, 1999; Winebrenner, 1992,).
Several broad principles and characteristics are useful in establishing differentiated instruction.
Teacher decisions are guided by information about each student. All tasks are worthwhile and
valuable. Flexible grouping allows students to see themselves in different settings and with
different kinds of work (Tomlinson, 1999).
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a PreK - 12 teaching strategy involving children's participation in small group learning activities that promote positive interaction. Cooperative learning promotes student motivation, encourages group processes, fosters social and academic interaction among students, and rewards successful group participation.
Lyman and Foyle (1988) identify the basic steps involved in successful implementation of cooperative learning activities:
1. The content to be taught is identified, and criteria for mastery are determined by the teacher.
2. The most useful cooperative learning technique is identified, and the group size is determined by the teacher.
3. Students are assigned to groups.
4. The classroom is arranged to facilitate group interaction.
5. Group processes are taught or reviewed as needed to assure that the groups run smoothly.
6. The teacher develops expectations for group learning and makes sure students understand the purpose of the learning that will take place. A time line for activities is made clear to students.
7. The teacher presents initial material as appropriate, using whatever techniques she or he chooses.
8. The teacher monitors student interaction in the groups, and provides assistance and clarification as needed. The teacher reviews group skills and facilitates problem-solving when necessary.
9. Student outcomes are evaluated. Students must individually demonstrate mastery of important skills or concepts of the learning. Evaluation is based on observations of student performance or oral responses to questions; paper and pencil need not be used.
10. Groups are rewarded for success. Verbal praise by the teacher, or recognition in the class newsletter or on the bulletin board can be used to reward high-achieving groups.
Layered Curriculum
Layered Curriculum was originally designed for the secondary classroom. It is now one of the most popular K-Graduate School student-centered teaching methods (Nunley, 2003).
Layered Curriculum, a triangular shaped instructional method, is designed to individualize instruction, accommodate the diversity in a mixed-ability classroom, encourage higher levels of thinking and hold the learner accountable for learning. This triangular method simply divides an instructional unit into 3 layers - C Layer, B Layer and A Layer. Each layer represents a different depth of study in a topic or unit of learning. C Level, the bottom layer, is the largest layer and is basically designed around state standards and state assessments. B Layer, the middle layer, is smaller and offers students opportunities to apply knowledge and skills gained in C Layer. A Layer, the top layer, is the smallest and requires students to critically analyze a current issue in the real world, which relates to the unit of study. Students can choose how deep they wish to examine a topic and thereby choose their own grade as well. Assignments choices include lecture, problem solving, textbook reading, computer work, videos, worksheets, artwork, models, demonstrations and research.
Accountability is paramount as students are awarded points only for learning not for "doing"
assignments. Layered Curriculum uses a different paradigm for grading. Rather than the
traditional grading system based on a percent of information recalled, the grading in Layered
Curriculum reflects the student's chosen depth of study. The higher the grade, the deeper
understanding a student has to demonstrate.
Closing Thoughts
There is no one "right" instructional method for teaching a course, unit or lesson. All
instructional methods have advantages and disadvantages, and require preparation time. Many
teachers select and implement instructional methods that best fit their teaching style, subject
matter, and students' age and developmental levels.
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