Hot Topics from Psychology and Neuroscience

ADD

~~ A therapy technique called "Musical Attention Training Program has been touted as a beneficial treatment for Attention Deficit Disorder. Researchers in Toronto have conducted a study which shows some promise for this therapy when used with attention problems that are often associated with brain injury.  Knox, R. et al. (2003). Music Therapy Perspectives, Vol 21(2), 99-104.

~~ In recent years, problems in the frontal lobe have been blamed for ADD. But new research is now showing that there may be areas more strongly linked. A study at Leiden, Netherlands (Leiden Univ) found that children with ADD have more delay in "orienting to cues" rather than impaired decision making (which was previously thought to be the culprit). Using new imaging techniques, they have found that the children seem to have a problem in a lower region of the brain, the attention system. This means that they are slow to detect the source of new incoming stimuli or cannot separate one source from another. Similar information is coming from the University Clinic for Child & Adolescent Psychiatry in Essen Germany. Their imaging study shows impaired function also in the limbic system of ADD children in what they call "intercortical dialog". Basically, problems with the left side which processes details and the right side which specializes in global processing. A study at the University of Denver, Dept. of Psychology is also showing that ADD involves not only the frontal lobe, but other regions as well, particularly the right parietal lobe.

~~ A study at the University of Pittsbugh, School of Medicine, looked at highly aggressive children diagnosed with ADD. Half the children were given a placebo (sugar pill) and the other half were administered methylphenidate (Ritalin). In their double-blind study, the Ritalin group had significantly reduced their aggressive behavior.

~~ The University of Kentucky Medical Center is defending testing accommodation for persons with ADD. They state that test agencies have been unable to prove that test validity for standardized tests at any level (even the state Bar exam) is altered by accommodation for ADD.

ADHD

~~ Traditionally, researchers considered that the brains of children with ADHD were just developing differently than the brains of children without ADHD.  But new MRI research show the condition may actually be a brain delay, rather than just abnormal development. Normally, a child's cortex thickens slowly up to around age 7, then thins out.  It turns out that the cortex of a brain with ADHD doesn't reach its peak thickness until around age 10.  This delay, coupled with an early motor cortex maturity may explain some of the symptoms of ADHD.  Price, M (2008) Monitor on Psychology, Vol 39(2), pg 12.

~~ Young children with ADHD who later also develop conduct disorders are at a greater risk for substance abuse and criminal behavior.  However, researchers have found that the parenting of these children has a large effect on their outcome.  Maternal depression poses the greatest risk for these children and positive parenting during the early years with these children offers significant protection again these risk factors. Chronis, A. et al. (2007).  Developmental Psychology, Vol 43(1) 70-82

~~ For years we've associated problems in the prefrontal
cortex as one of the major contributors to ADHD.  Researchers at Queens College in NYC are arguing that model.  They hypothesize that the development of this area actually just correlates with the reduction in ADHD symptoms as the person develops.  They feel that ADHD is due completely to noncortical dysfunction, develops very early in the brain's life and remains constant throughout life despite the fact that some symptoms may lessen with development. Haperin, J. & Schulz, K. (2006). Psychological Bulletin, Vol 132(4), 560 - 581.

~~ A recent article by leading Harvard Medical School
experts summarizes the most up-to-date research and understanding of ADHD(attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder):
The disorder affects about 10% of all children worldwide.  About one-half of the children with ADHD will continue to have some type of impairment from it through adulthood.  Genetic studies have shown it to be highly heritable and while heredity seems to be the leading cause, some pre-natal and even early childhood events can also be linked to ADHD. From a molecular standpoint, research points to catecholaminergic circuits and impaired transmission of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Research in treatments has shown both non-stimulant and long-acting traditional treatments such as methylphenidate (Ritalin) to be safe and effective, especially when coupled with behavioral interventions and treatment.  Biederman, J. & Faraone, S. (2005).  Lancet. Vol 366(9481) 237-248.

~~ From Beijing, China we see an interesting study looking at the different responses to the use of methylphenidate (brand name, Ritalin) for ADHD and a very specific gene.  Some children respond well to Ritalin for inattention, some for impulsivity and some for both.  What these researcher found is that those children who responded well to Ritalin for impulsivity were also children who have a very specific version of the gene responsible for norepinephrine transport.  So the inattention and impulsivity components to ADHD may come from separate genetic factors. Yang, L. et al (2004).  Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry.  Vol 43(9), 1154-1158.
 
~~ A recent Greek study looked at verbal memory and recall times for children with and without ADHD.  Their subjects were school children 7 - 11 years old.  They gave them numbers and phrases to be learned for later recall.  While both the children with ADHD and those without scored equally well on accuracy when later tested, the ADHD children took a significantly longer time to recall their answers and a much longer time to articulate them.  Kourakis, L. et al (2004). DevelopmentalNeuropsychology.  Vol 26(2), 565-570.
~~ More research out now on the genetic component to Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.  Thought to be a genetic event with many genes involved, UCLA researchers have found additional evidence pointing to one of the culprit genes - named SNAP-25 (for those biology enthusiasts - it's a mutation on the 3' end of an untranslated region which encodes a synaptic vesicle docking protein).  The gene most commonly is associated with paternal transmission.  (sorry Dads....hate to keep blaming you). Kustanovich, V. et. al (2003).  Molecular Psychiatry. Vol 8(3), 309-315.

~~ Diagnosing pre-schoolers with ADHD seems to some to be inaccurate, unneccessary and perhaps even detrimental. A study from Dalhousie University in Halifax shows just the opposite. They observed 50, 3 to 6 year olds in a preschool setting, half diagnosed with ADHD and half not. The ADHD children were off-task significantly more time than the non-ADHD children. They were also much more talkative and active. Their conclusion: early diagnosis of ADHD appears valid and may be useful in establishing behavioral programs at an early age to help these children be successful. DeWolfe, N, et. al. 2000. Journal of Attention Disorders, Vol 4(2), 80-90.

~~ We now have one of the first pieces of research to show an actual physical brain change using biofeedback for ADHD. Researchers in Germany put children (ages 7 - 13) diagnosed with Attention Deficit - Hyperactivity Disorder through a "slow cortical potentials" (SCPs) training program for 3 weeks. They found a fairly significant reduction in impulsivity and improved behavior ratings from parents as well as changes in actual brain potentials. Heinrich, H. et al (2004). Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 55(7), 772-775.

~~ We've long known that people who are not touched and held much as very young infants can have a host of problems as teens and adults, but the biology behind it has been vague. Now researchers in Brazil are finding physical brain changes in handled vs non-handled infants. Their study involved other mammals, but found that infants handled during the first week had a very significant reduction or pruning of cells in a region known as the Locus Coeruleus (LC). This LC area is the region responsible for attention, some memory and sleep/wake cycles. Problems in this region have been linked to both attention deficit and hyperactivity. In their study, the changes in the LC remained very different in the "held and touched" infants even for months afterward indicating a long term effect of early touching of infants versus neglect. Lucion, A. (2003). Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol 177(5), 894-903.

~~ The American Journal of Psychiatry reports that the new once-a-day atomoxetine treatment for ADHD seems to be very effective in treating the disorder in both children and adolescents with very few side effects or negative safety issues. Atomoxetine is sold under the name of Strattera. Michelson, D. (2002). American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol159(11), 1896-1901.

~~ Here's more research on the genetic side of ADHD as well as an interesting gender preference for inheriting the disorder. Trinity College, Ireland, has found 3 genetic ties to ADHD, all having to do with dopamine levels. Dopamine receptors, the dopamine transporter genes and genes responsible for synthesis of dopamine are all linked to the disorder. The study also found that the ADHD responsible genes tend to come from the father's genetic make-up more so than the mother's genes. Kirley, A. et al. (2002). Neuropsychopharmacology, vol 27(4), 607-619.

Do you inherit ADHD? Yes, according to the research that continues to support the connection between genes and ADHD. Two new studies point to more than one gene as being involved in the disorder. Research out of Hamilton, Ontario correlates ADHD to the DRD4 dopamine receptor gene. (specifically the gene's exon III coding sequence). Other research shows that the DRD4 may interact with other gene regions such as the serotonin transporter promoter gene. Schmidt, et al. 2001. Psychiatric Genetics, vol 11(1), 25-29. and Auerbach, J. et al. as above pg. 31-35.

~~ Alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, stress - which of these substances/events when used by a pregnant woman is most likely to lead to ADHD in the child? Nicotine! - according to a summary of the research released out of Denmark. Nicotine use during pregnancy showed the greatest risk for Attention Deficit & Hyperactivity problems later in the child's life. Alcohol and caffeine studies could not support any contribution and the research on stress shows that it may contribute slightly to ADHD. Linnet, K., et al. (2003). American Journal of Psychiatry. Vol 160(6), 1028-1040

~~ ADHD children show a very predictable instability in their sleep patterns. The irregularities include: sleep onset, sleep duration, and amount of true sleep received. In fact the pattern is so distinct and severe, that the National Institute of Mental Health feels that sleep pattern could be used as a diagnosis for ADHD. Gruber, Sadeh, & Raviw. 2000. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 39(4), 495-501.

~~ A new study out on medicating ADHD, shows that the best results were obtained when using Ritalin (MPH) mixed with caffeine. The study showed that impulsivity and agression as well as planning skills were most effected by the combination of these two drugs. (When used separately, Ritalin is more effective than caffeine and amphetimines work about as well as Ritalin.) Leon, M. 2000. Journal of Attention Disorders, vol 4(1), 27-47.

~~ According to a study published last year, there appears to be an optimum window of learning opportunity after administering ADD medication. In the study of ADHD boys aged 9 - 11, reading was greatly improved (mastery, fewer errors, higher rate per minute) during the first hour after Ritalin compared to 3-4 hours after medication. Kastner, J., et.al. (2000). Psychology in the Schools, vol. 37(4) 367-377.

~~ The Journal of Psychiatry reports that if you are going to develop manic-depression, the symptoms will show much sooner if you have AD/HD. Sacks, G. et.al. (2000). American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 157(3), 466-468.

~~ Buffalo State College researched the ADHD child's ability to identify emotions. Using pictures, video, and audio tapes, they found that non-ADHD children were quite competent in identifying emotion in others while ADHD children were severely impaired in the skill. Norvilitus, et. al. (2000). Journal of Attention Disorders, vol. 4(1), 15-26.

~~ Several long term studies have been tracking the inattention curve in ADHD children as they grow. Inattention in ADHD children peaks between the age of 7 and 8. After that it tends to stabilize through adolescence and adulthood. Hyperactivity frequently disappears between the ages of 7 and 9. ADD does not. Hart, E. et. al. (2000). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, vol 28(3), 311. Biederman, J. et.al. (2000). American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 157(5), 816-818.

~~ A Purdue University study of 120 boys, aged 7-13 years shows some typical work patterns in ADHD children. The study compared boys with ADHD to non-ADHD peers in a work/problem solving activity. The study found that ADHD boys were less effective in social interactions, but interestingly, were also less frustrated and less helpless than their non-ADHD peers. Children with ADHD were more likely to attribute any success they had to "luck" or simply the ease of the task. Non-ADHD children in the study tended to blame failures on themselves, in that they didn't "try hard enough." Haza, et. al. (2000)Child Development, vol 71(2) 432-446.

~~ Despite rumor to the contrary, ADHD children are NOT more at-risk for substance abuse than their non- ADHD peers. However, if the ADHD is coupled with a Conduct Disorder, then the ADHD child is more at risk for substance-abuse. Molina, et. al. (1999). Psychology Addictive Behaviors, vol. 13(4) 348 - 358.

~~ High School teachers have a wide range of attitudes toward children with ADHD and LD (learning disabilities). According to a survey of both regular and special educators, 46% thought that ADHD children would carry a multitude of problems into adulthood. 13% thought that learning disabilities resulted from parents "spoiling" their children. 95% thought that LD students are entitled to a more lenient education. Brook, et. al. (2000). Patient Education & Counseling, vol. 40(3), 247-252.

~~ Leroux and Levitt-Perlman write in the Roeper Review that we are focusing on the wrong side of ADHD. They criticize that research and articles always emphasize the negative aspects of the disorder, when in fact, many characteristics of ADHD resemble those of gifted and talented persons as well as resembling creative talents such as divergent thinking. Leroux & Levitt-Perlman (2000). Roeper Review, vol. 22(3) 171-176.

~~ Can children with ADHD comprehend television and video to the same degree as non-ADHD? Apparently not, according to the University of Kentucky. In a study with 7-12 year olds, attention decreased sharply during a video, especially when distractors such as toys were present. This inattention meant that while the ADHD children could recall basic facts of the story afterward, they had a much lower understanding of the relationships among the events in the story. Lorch et.al. (2000). J. of Abnormal Psych., vol 109(2), 321-330.

~~ New findings in EEG patterns may soon give a more valid diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Researchers in Australia have found distinct EEG patterns in the brains of children with ADHD. The unique EEG waves show an immature, hypoaroused central nervous system. Clarke, A. (2002). Clinical Neurophysiology, Vol 113(7), 1036-1044.

~~ Diagnosing pre-schoolers with ADHD seems to some to be inaccurate, unnecessary and perhaps even detrimental. A study from Dalhousie University in Halifax shows just the opposite. They observed 50, 3 to 6 year olds in a preschool setting, half diagnosed with ADHD and half not. The ADHD children were off-task significantly more time than the non-ADHD children. They were also much more talkative and active. Their conclusion: early diagnosis of ADHD appears valid and may be useful in establishing behavioral programs at an early age to help these children be successful. DeWolfe, N, et. al. 2000. Journal of Attention Disorders, Vol 4(2), 80-90.

~~ Children who have ADHD coupled with Conduct Disorder apparently really just have a version of Conduct Disorder rather than an complication of attention deficit. New research out of Toronto shows that the inhibitory control problems seen in ADHD children are not found in ADHD children who also have conduct disorder (ADHD+CD). In lab tasks where children are tested on their ability to stop an ongoing activity, only the "plain" ADHD children are severely impaired. So the ADHD+CD should really just be CD children who have attention problems as well. Schachar, et. al. 2000. J. of Abnormal Child Psychology, vol 28(3), 227-235.

~~ A study at the University of Pittsburgh school of Medicine shows that middle school children with ADHD are no more at risk for substance abuse than their non-ADHD classmates. However, these children are more at risk if the ADHD was coupled with Conduct Disorder. Molina, et.al. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. 1999, vol. 13(4), 348-358.

~~ Persons with bi-polar disorder (manic- depression) have an earlier onset of symptoms if they also have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. This is according to a study out of Massachusetts General Hospital. Sachs, G. et.al. 2000. Am. Journal of psychiatry. vol. 157(3), 466-468.

~~ Two studies support concern for ADHD individuals into adolescence and adulthood. Curran et. al, (1999) found a high percentage of the prison population has ADHD (9% of prisoners vs. 2.5% of young adults in the general population). Clure, et. l (1999) found that among inpatients for substance use disorder (alcohol and/or cocaine use), 32% met the criteria for ADHD, and that 35% of those inpatients had a childhood diagnosisi of ADHD and continued to have problems with it into adulthood. Clure, et. al, (1999). American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. vol. 25(3), 441-448.

Curran, et. al., (1999). American Journal of Psychiatry. vol. 156(10), 1664-1665.

~~ The University of Wisconsin has published a study tracking students with ADHD into college. They found that college students with ADHD were more likely to be on academic probation and had a higher incidence of academic problems than their peers. The study claimed that the problems experienced by these students were similar to those of a learning disorder.

~~ Oregon Health Sciences University looked at the effect of ADHD on siblings. Their conclusion: the siblings frequently felt victimized and that victimization is often overlooked or discounted by other members of the family. Their recommendation: there is a strong need for increased social and mental health services for all members of families with a member diagnosed with ADHD.

AGING BRAIN

~~ Many of us were excited a few years ago when researchers discovered that it may indeed be possible to regenerate nerve cells in the brain. The research shows that the hippocampus, the area responsible for forming memories, is capable of growing new neurons later in life. Now a study out of Princeton is showing what we can do to increase the liklihood of this growth occuring in our brains. According to this study, new nerve cell growth is started by hormones out of the ovaries and adrenal glands. The new cells will either grow or die depending on the enrichment of our environment, learning and reduction of stress. Gould, E., et. al. 2000. Biological Psychiatry, vol. 48(9), 715-720.

~~ More research is out supporting the shift in memory regions as we age. This time, the University of Illinois has been using fMRI imaging to compare memory probes and working memory issues in young brains and older brains. As we've seen in other studies, the older brain activates frontal lobe areas for working memory and memory retrieval whereas younger brains use the hippocampus regions. This new research continues to support the theory that the brain compensates as we get older, for the decay in our hippocampus areas. Park, D. et al. (2003). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. Vol 15(8), 1122- 1134.

~~ UCLA's School of Medicine has released some preliminary research indicating that estrogen replacement therapy may help preserve brain tissue in healthy elderly women. Normal aging causes brain tissue lose, specifically cortical atrophy, central atrophy, deep white-matter hyperintensities and periventricular hyperintensities in the brain. Their study tracked post menopausal women over several years and found that the brains of women receiving estrogen had less atrophy in those areas than the brains of the control group not taking the estrogen. Cook, I. et al. (2002). International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, Vol 17(7), 610-618.

~~ Feeling the brain effects of aging? Organization and decision making skills may decline as the brain ages due to the deterioration of the frontal lobes. However a study in Scotland shows that not all areas of the frontal lobes decline with age. The researchers looked at the 2 main regions of the frontal lobes - the dorsolateral and ventromedial. One handles social decision making, the other handles organization and working memory. Apparently it is the organization and working memory region that is most affected by aging. Our social decision making remains relatively intact. MacPherson, S. et al. (2002). Psychology & Aging, Vol 17(4), 598-609

~~ Feeling the mental effects of your brain's age? Decisions, memory and word retrieval seems to be slowing down? You may be interested in some of the new research on how our brain ages. Apparently we lose production of dopamine, reduce metabolism in decision making regions, and generally increase thinking time as we rely on greater regions of our brains. These two recent studies have shed more light of the biochemistry of the aging brain. A Duke University study shows that while young brains use memory to retrieve on a recognition task, blood flow increases in the right prefrontal cortex. While retrieving similar recognition memory, older brains (60 - 80 years) increase blood flow in several regions of the cortex as the retrieval process slows down. A separate study out of New York shows that the reduction in dopamine activity in the older brain results from a decrease in the receptors which transmit dopamine signals and consequently this results in a more limited glucose metabolism rate. This effect is strongest in the frontal cortex, although some areas of the temporal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus are involved as well. Madden, et.al. (1999). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, vol 11(5), 511- 520. Volkow, et.al. (2000). American Journal of Psychiatry. vol 157(1), 75-80

ALCOHOL

~~ Bond University in Australia addresses the issue of why alcohol and aggression have such a close association. In fact, in most mammals, humans included, even moderate amounts of alcohol tend to increase violent and/or aggressive behavior. Their explanation is that it creates a two-fold event involving both the cortex and subcortical areas. First, alcohol disrupts the performance of the pre-frontal cortex - the region responsible for making good, sound decisions. The second problem is that alcohol also tends to disinhibit some subcortical regions, which are responsible for our more primitive drives (sex, fight/flight, eating). So the combination of the primitive drive region feeling more "free" to express itself and the executive controlling function of the brain put on hold, leads to the problems we see. Lyvers, M. 2000. Experimental & Clinical Psychopharmacology, vol. 8(4), 607-608. Peter Giancola at the University of Kentucky has published a similar study in the same issue, pages 576-597.

~~ In the Harvard Mental Health Letter released this week, there is good news for friends and families of problem drinkers. While the FDA recommends 2 alcoholic drinks per day, nearly a third of Americans consume more than that. But many of these drinkers can be encouraged to cut back through informal channels and discussions. In fact 75% of problem drinkers or abuses recover without intense therapy and intervention. Family, school counselors and friends can help with simple suggestions such as setting limits. You can read the suggestions at: www.health.harvard.edu.

~~ Because of the plasticity and period of change experienced by the neurons in the adolescent brain, they may be more susceptible to damage by alcohol than adults. According to a study at the University of California, San Diego, synaptic connections continue to increase and decrease through age 20, indicating the brain may continue its rapid developmental state longer than previous thought. Therefore, alcohol use during teenage years may have a more significant effect and create more damage to the adolescent brain than the adult brain. Tapert, S. et. al. National Institutes of Health News Release Feb. 14, 2000.

ALZHEIMER'S

~~ Memory loss in Alzheimer's disease versus memory loss associated with other aging issues are both found in the hippocampus. However, recent fMRI images show that the hippocampus deterioration in Alzheimer's patients is more pervasive and multi-regional, whereas other memory loss due to age is restricted to only one region of the hippocampus (the subiculum). Small, et. al. Annals of Neurology, 1999, v 45, 4, 466-472.

~~ Florida Atlantic University released a study showing that although memory loss is great, the sense of self or personal identity of an individual persists into late stage of Alzheimer's disease. (AD) J. of Nursing Scholoarship, 1999, v 31,2, 121-125. Tappan et.al.

ANXIETY

~~ Can children have anxiety disorders?  The question has created much debate in recent years in the medical and psychological community.  Researchers at the University of Illinois - Urbana have used a technique known as "voxel-based morphometry" to compare the brains of children diagnosed with Anxiety Disorder and a group of "normal" children. It turns out that the children with Anxiety Disorder had significantly reduced gray matter volume in their left amygdala (an area very much involved in emotional response.) Milham, M. et al. (2005).  Biological Psychiatry, Vol 57(9), 961-966.

~~ Columbia University has released a study showing a strong relationship between anxiety and poor memory ability -The relationship is particularly strong in young boys at risk for deliquency. Pine, et al. (1999). Journal of American Academy of child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Vol. 38(3). 1024-1031.

~~ While Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) generally appears soon after a trauma, the full effect may not be felt for years. According to a Yale University study, PTSD can often return, in a more severe form, during dementia. van Acterberg, M. et al. (2001). Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, Vol 62(3), 206-207.

~~ Panic attacks often result from problems with the brain pathways that control for the acquisition of conditioned fear. Conditioned fear involves regions of the brain such as the amygdala, the brain stem, the hippocampus and parts of the pre-frontal cortex. This is pretty much all the major brain regions which may account for the confusion and overwhelming emotions during fear and panic. Sinha, S., Laszlo, A. & Gorman, J. (2000). Journal of Affective Disorders. Vol 61(3), 191-200.

~~ According to a Boston study, PTSD results from problems or a disruption in the pre-frontal cortex. This is the region of the brain responsible for decision making. Koenen, K., et al. (2001). Brain & Cognition, Vol 45(1), 64-78.

~~ Most people have a hand preference - we are generally either right handed or left handed. But some people show no preference and are referred to as mixed handed. Adolescents with mixed-handedness are more prone to trauma symptoms and panic disorders. Chemtob, C. et al. (2001). Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, Vol 189(1), 58-60.

~~ Concerned that you or a loved one is suffering from PTSD? A urine test may help determine the diagnosis. Persons with PTSD show increased levels of noradrenaline and dopamine in their urine. Tobin, J. (2001). Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, Vol 18(1), 27-29.

~~ Research continues to show the detrimental effect of stress on the hippocampus and its role in memory. Stress particularly effects short term memory. Take a walk. McEwen, B. & Magarinos, A. (2001). Human Psycho- pharmacology Clinical & Experimental, Vol 16(1), S7-S19.

ARTS

~~ Music appreciation appears to be a skill we are born with - or apparently most of us are born with it. The ability to perceive and enjoy music has a real biological basis according to new studies. "Congenital Amusia" is the name given to the condition some people are born with, in which all music sounds the same to them. These people lack the ability to process pitch information. Stewart, L. & Walsh, V. (2002). Current Biology, Vol. 12(12), 420-421.

AUTISM/ASPERGER'S

~~ Researchers in Toronto have released a study showing that they have found numerous locations on the human genome that are link to autism.  The gene abnormalities are either DNA deletions or total gene duplications and are not necessarily found in the parents - indicating these may be random pre-natal mutations and not genetically inherited predispositions.  These genetic mutations can be tested for. Many can be directly linked to specific behaviors such as a deletion on chromosome 16 which leads to language delays.  Canadian Press (Jan 17, 2008) APA "Psychology in the News". Psychport.com

~~ While genetic contributions to autism have been generally accepted for many years now, finding the exact genetic marker or biological basis has been up for much discussion and search.  By looking for brain anomalies in the brains of unaffected relatives of persons with autism, researchers have found some clues to the puzzle.  Much of this new research continues to point to the genes that code for a serotonin transporter protein. These rare genes relating to serotonin may increase a person's risk for autism. Kuehn, B. (2006).  Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol 295(1), 19-20.

~~ Serotonin levels and autism have been linked for many years now.  The fact that many persons with autism are found to have very high levels of serotonin and that many symptoms of autism are successfully treated with SSRIs, has led researchers to assume the problem may be with the serotonin transporter gene, 5-HHT. However researchers at Mt Sinai School of Medicine have examined the most likely areas of this gene and have found no relationship between autism and the more common 5HHT variants.  Ramoz, N. et al.(2006). Biological Psychiatry. vol 60(2), 186-191

~~ Children's Hospital in Seattle has been studying the
volume of the corpus callosum compared to total cerebral volume in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) versus typically developing children. Children with ASD had a disproportionately smaller corpus callosum than typical children.  This could mean that there is a decrease in interhemisperic connectivity (and communication) in persons with ASD or that the larger cerebral volume seen in ASD is due to an increase in tissues that are simply not represented in the corpus callosum.  Boger-Megiddo, I., et al(2006). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Vol 36(6), 733-739.

~~ Children with autism struggle not so much with facts and
information, but with the source of that information.  Source memory, as it is called, often involves the social aspects of context.   Researchers in Connecticut have compared the memory of children with autism to those without and found that factual memory remains fairly equal.  But the source memory in children with autism functions at significantly lower levels. O'Shea, A et al. (2005). Developmental Neuropsychology, Vol 27(3), 337-360.

~~ Asperger Syndrome:  nature vs nurture?  Asperger syndrome (one of the autism spectrum disorders) can be caused by chromosome abnormalities, prenatal events, or genetics. Most of the time Asperger syndrome has a genetic component (55% of all cases).  It tends to follow paternal blood lines as about half of all people with Asperger syndrome have some type of autism spectrum disorder in their father's family line.  About 25% of Asperger syndrome cases result from some prenatal or birth event. Gillberg, C. & Cederlund, M. (2005).  Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, Vol 35(2), 159-166.

~~ One of the most common questions I get asked is "What is the difference between high-functioning autism and Asperger's syndrome?" I've even known many to use the two terms interchangeably.  They are not the same thing at all.  This month's issue of APA's monitor has an excellent article demarcating the two.
While as adults, persons with Asperger's and persons with high functioning autism may look very similar, the differences stand out strongly in children. The key can be found in language development.  Children with Asperger's syndrome have rather typical language development or even advanced language development. While they don't use language well for social interaction as in give-and-take, they do tend to drone on about their favorite subject.  Children with autism struggle greatly with language.  They tend to have strengths in motor skills and manipulating objects. A new study just released compared children with Asperger's and children with autism who had very similar IQ's (in the normal and above normal range only). The difference?  The autistic children performed well on visual spatial perception tasks, like puzzles and on motor skills.  The children with Asperger's syndrome showed deficits in these sub-tests but did very well on vocabulary, verbal memory and auditory perception. So, if you are trying to determine whether a child has Asperger's syndrome or high functioning autism, look into the history of their language development.  Dingfelder, S. (2004).  Monitor on Psychology.  Vol 35(11), 48 - 49.

~~ Since we're on the topic of autism, another new study jumped out at me this week out of Columbia University.  They did a complete review of all the brain imaging, neurological and biochemistry research that's been done to date on autism.  They drew 4 definitive conclusions about what is now known about this disorder.  (1).  It is a heterogeneous disorder with most likely many causes.  (2) brain imaging has shown a wide range of anatomical differences all of which reflect problems early in the brains development having to do with neuron growth and pruning.  (3) The neurochemical differences occur early and are pervasive rather than localized to any one area.  (4)  we don't have enough research yet to say exactly in what way the autistic brain functions differently than the non autistic brain, but there is a huge number of current research projects going on in this area. Eigsti, I. & Shapiro, T. (2003).  Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews.  Vol 9(3), 205-215.

~~ Trying to figure out the difference between autism, Asperger's syndrome and atypical autism? So is the medical and psychological community. Traditionally, children with relatively normal language development, but severely maladaptive social skills have carried the label of Asperger's syndrome. Autism has been reserved for children who exhibit BOTH social and language deficits. However, that view is changing. Leekam, S., et. al. (2000) Autism, vol 4(1) 11-28. AND Volkmar, F. et. al, (2000) American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol 157(2) 262-267.

~~ More research on the relationship between serotonin levels and Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD). PDD includes persons with autism, Asperger's syndrome and PDD - not otherwise specified. Researchers in the Netherlands have compared platelet serotonin levels in children with PDD, mental retardation, and normal control children. They found platelet serotonin levels were much higher in children with PDD. The children with non-PDD mental retardation did not show this condition, which is referred to as "hyperserotonemia" (isn't that a great term). It's exciting to watch science get closer and closer to a way of earlier diagnosis of PDD. Mulder, E. et al (2004). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. Vol 43(4), 491-499.

~~ New research and discussion has emerged linking autism to serotonin levels and the cerebellum. Two separate groups of researchers - one in California and the other in Pisa, Italy have found the serotonin system to malfunction in the brains of autistic individuals. The problem is located in the cerebellum and results in an inability to coordinate the functions of cognition and emotion. 1. Marazziti, D. (2002). Psychiatry, Vol 52(2), 143. 2. Pierce, K & Courchesne, E. (2002). Biological Psychiatry, Vol 52(2), 143.

~~ Texas Tech University has also released new research on autism. They found significant deficits in the prefrontal areas of the brain responsible for word identification and language formation skills. When compared to "normal" brains, the autistic brain shows serious hypoperfusion. Wilcox, J. et.al. (2002). Neuropsychobiology, Vo 46(1), 13-16.

~~ St. George's Hospital in London is releasing new research on the biochemical differences found in persons with Asperger's Syndrome (AS). According to their research, persons with AS show significant increase in choline, creatine and N-acetylaspartate in the PreFrontal lobe which is associated with obsessive behavior and problems in social function. Murphy, D. et al. (2002). Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol 59(10), 885-892.

~~ Dr James Mulick, Ohio State University, reported on a very impressive study they've conducted with young autistic children using Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI). After full-time EIBI for 3 years, nearly all the children in their study went from moderate mental retardation to at least an average IQ and most saw a very significant loss of autistic symptoms.

~~ Using fMRI techniques, Yale University has found an interesting brain abnormality in persons with autism and autism spectrum disorder. In most brains (yours and mine) we use one area to discriminate or identify objects and a different area to identify faces. In the brains of persons with autism, they use only the first region (inferior Temporal gyri) to identify both objects and faces. Schultz, et.al. (2000). Archives of General Psychiatry, vol 57(4), 331-340.

Asperger's Disorder or Autism? The debate on how to separate these disorders continues. And research continues to show the line is fuzzy. In a current study, they tracked pre-school (age 4-6) children through their early elementary years to see which group improved more, those diagnosed with Asperger's or those diagnosed with autism. The children with Asperger's syndrome developed better social skills with age and showed fewer stereotypic autistic symptoms. However, if the autistic children developed verbal fluency, they were quite difficult to separate from the children with Asperger's by the time they reached middle elementary grades. Szatmari, P. et al. 2000. Am. Journal of Psychiatry. Vol 157(12) 1980-1987 .

~~ Emory University has linked abnormal oxytocin and vasopressin neurotransmitter levels with several behaviors and features of autism. (oxytocin is the neurotransmitter mentioned in this newsletter earlier this year as being associated with monogamy and parent-child bonding). This study is pointing to faulty genes and the expression of peptides for the abnormal levels.

~~ Many children with late-onset autism are actually experiencing epileptic-like brain activity in their sleep. The research project, started about 2 years ago, has found that autism may in fact be related to epilepsy. The children in the study were found to be having small seizure activity in the temporal region of their brains during sleep. This previously undetected activity is thought to be interfering with the brain's natural process of pruning out unused dendrites during sleep. Apparently, dendrites, or pathways, that should have been removed, remain, because the brain mistakenly believes they are still in use. The study is being conducted at research park at the University of Utah.

BRAIN REGIONS/FUNCTION

~~ Regular exercise improves cognitive function, improves blood flow to the prefrontal cortex, improves attention and reduces depression.  Exercise can also undo much of the damage done to the hippocampus by cortisol as a result of chronic stress.  Bruce McEwen,PhD. Rockefeller University. "Of Molecules and Mind:Integrating the psychology and biology of stress and adaptation.  Address presented at the APA convention, August 18, 2007, San Francisco.

~~ If you are a person who uses both your left and right hand for various tasks (an attribute called mixed-handedness) you probably have a brain whose left and right hemispheres are more strongly connected than someone who has a strong hand preference. This can give you some bonuses other than just the convenience of having 2 hands to use! Researchers are finding that mixed-handed people have stronger episodic memory systems (the ability to remember personal life events, like your 2nd grade school year) and are able to remember earlier childhood experiences. Episodic memory uses both left and right hemispheres and develops around age 4 with the corpus callosum connecting the two sides. A strong corpus callosum also gives one the ability to do some tasks with either hand. Winerman, L. (2006) Monitor on Psychology, Vol 37(6), 18 - 19.

~~ Most of us have seen prenatal pictures of a fetus sucking its thumb. If the fetus is sucking his or her right thumb, he or she is most certainly going to be right handed. If the fetus is sucking the left thumb, there's about a 66 % chance they will be left handed. So handedness appears determined before birth - especially for right handers. Hepper, P. et al. (2005). Neuropsychologia, vol 43(3), 313-315.

~~ Hearing one's own name in everyday situation is an attention grabber as it causes a sudden rise in our self-awareness. Researchers used PET scans to see what happens in the brain when we hear our first name. They found a significant cerebral blood flow change in the right superior temporal sulcus and an even stronger change in the medial prefrontal cortex, suggesting that this region plays a big role in our processing of "self". Perrin, F. et al. (2005). Neuropsychologia, Vol 43(1), 12-19.

~~ Cognitive psychologists, neuroscientists and muscians will be teaming up this weekend for a rather unique research project out of McGill University (Montreal). They will be measuring a host of physiological and neurological responses at the Boston Symphony. They will measure responses from the conductor, musicians and audience members as well as audience members at a taped viewing. Researchers seek to find the differences in the way we respond to music, both as performers and listeners and as live versus recorded. You can watch for the results here in this newsletter or at: http://www.mcgill.ca

~~ Neurotrophins are a group of growth factors responsible for neuron growth and development.  Some researchers are linking 3 of them, NGF, BDNF and NT-3 with the development of schizophrenia.  If dysfunctional, these 3 could play a crucial role in the neurodevelopmental problems that lead to schizophrenia.  Shoval, F. & Weizman, A. (2005).  European Neuropsychopharmacology, Vol 15(3), 319-329.

~~ If you are watching a classroom demonstration or a video, your brain is receiving information from more than one sense or modality (your eyes, your ears, etc.).  Each of these sensory signals is processed in a separate region of the cortex (a unimodal area) and then, because they come from the same place and time, are integrated in a multisensory brain region (a heteromodal region). Neuroimaging studies are showing that this process is actually a 2-way street.  Not only do the unimodal areas affect the heteromodal regions, but the interactions in the heteromodal areas can affect the specific unimodal regions as well.  This new view complicates our traditional views of multisensory integration in the brain. Macaluso, E. & Driver, J. (2005).  Trends in Neurosciences, Vol. 28(5), 264-271.

~~ The brain uses separate cortex regions to interpret both the syntax and semantics of music.  This discovery is showing a large overlap between music and language in the human brain.  When listening to music, we process its syntax with the inferior frontolateral cortex, ventrolateral premotor cortex and the superior temporal gyrus- the same regions we use to process linguistic syntax.  We process musical semantics with the posterior temporal regions which also overlaps with our interpretation of language.  Koelsch, S. (2005).  Current Opinion in Neurobiology, Vol. 15(2), 207-212.

~~ For those of you who collect research on gender differences in the brain, here's another study for your collection.  German researchers used a fMRI to image male and female brains while they looked at fear-inducing pictures. While the self-reports of "fear" where stronger from the women, the brain's activation or involvement (activation of the bilateral amygdala and the left fusiform gyrus) was greater in men. The researchers theorize that men's brains are wired to pay more attention to aggression cues in their environment.  Schienle, A. et al. (2005).  Neuroreport:  For Rapid Communication of Neuroscience Research. Vol 16(3), 277-280.

~~ While educators may label students as “visual learner”, “auditory learner” etc., in reality many brain regions process information in “modality-neutral” fashion. Researchers at the University of Iowa used PET scans to watch brains of people having to name pictures and sounds of objects.  If someone shows you a picture of a rooster and asks you to name it, or if they play the sound of a rooster crowing and have you name it, you will use the exact same left brain region for both tasks (inferotemporal). You do separate the naming task into different regions of this area for inanimate versus animate objects, but not for auditory or visual input modes.  Tranel, D. et al (2005).  Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol 17(8), 1293-1305.

~~ Neuroscience has shed a lot of light on the brain processing of bilingual speakers.  For the most part a bilingual speaker will use the same neural pathways for both languages. The only time you will see different brain regions involved is if the second language was acquired later in life, or the speaker struggles with mastery of the second language or if there has been very limited exposure to the second language.  Perani, D. & Abutalebi, J. (2005).  Current Opinion in Neurobiology, Vol 15(2), 202-206. 

~~ Those familiar with conformity studies (I summarize the hallmark Soloman Asch study in my new book) know that when a person finds themselves the lone thinker in a group, they usually will change their opinion and conform to the group even if they are confident in their view.  Emory University is using fMRI scans to find the brain regions involved with conformity and independent thinking.   When someone “conforms” in a group, regions of the occipital-parietal network are activated in their brain.  When a person remains “independent” of the group, the amygdala and caudate systems are activated.  Berns, G. et al. (2005). Biological Psychiatry, Vol 58(3), 245-253.

~~ Head trauma or brain damage to the frontal lobes does
not necessarily guarantee memory problems.  While researchers and neurologists have long associated the frontal lobes with short term memory function, it appears that there are many subdivisions to the frontal lobe region, and each area may or may not be involved with a different memory function.  So while we can continue to expect short term memory impairment with frontal lobe injury, it is possible for that not to occur.  Stuss, D. & Alexander, M. (2005).  Current Direction in Psychological Science, Vol 14(2), 84-88.

~~ Ever struggle to determine whether something is a true statement or a deception?  If you listen with your left ear, you may do a better job in making the determination.  Apparently deception detection is easiest and most accurate when processed through the right brain hemisphere with information coming in via the left ear.  Malcolm, S. & Keenan, J. (2005).  Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain & Cognition, Vol 10(2), 103-110.

~~ Use hand gestures when you lecture.  Research supports more emotional involvement on the part of the students to a lecture with hand gestures and more cognitive understanding of the material as well. However, only the right hemisphere apparently gains more "learning" from hand gestures.  If the right hemisphere is otherwise engaged during listening, the gestures make no difference.  Jaspers-Fayer, et al (2005). Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain & Cognition, Vol 10(2), 183-191.

~~ A couple of issues back, I mentioned some of the earlier research on mirror neurons, primarily in monkeys.  The research continues it's hot track - now more often in humans. Italian researchers use fMRI scans to show that when a person listens to another person explain an action they were about to do (such as put together parts or walk across the room) the neurons in the listener's brain that are responsible for those exact muscle movements are activated.  Tettamanti, M. et al (2005).  Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol 17(2), 273-281.

~~ As many of us suspected, physical exercise, does indeed make the brain stronger.  In his presentation at the recent APA convention in Washington DC, Tim Schallert, a researcher in Texas summarized all the recent research that shows regular physical activity can reduce your chances of getting Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and even stroke.  Schallert's own research is looking at how and why this happens.  Using rats, the researchers find that exercise prevents the brain's dopamine neurons from degenerating. This normal aging degeneration of dopamine neurons is what is responsible for so many of these aging diseases.  Schallert, T. (2005). Journal of Neuroscience, Vol 21(12), 4427-4435.

~~ Mirror neurons.  Since their discovery was revealed in the early 1990's, they have taken the neurology and psychology world by storm!   These neurons are apparently responsible for our human ability to imitate and empathize.  With their discovery we now can begin to understand how watching a football game excites us almost as much as playing the game. Or how watching your child sled gives us similar emotions to sledding ourselves.The research, of course, has great implications for educators.  The current issue of APA's Monitor summarizes the major areas of research on the implications for mirror neurons. I'll summarize each of their articles for this issue's Hot Topics:
1. The first article summarized the discovery and research on mirror neurons done in the late 1980s by Giacomo Rizolatti at the University of Parma.  They were first discovered in monkeys when researchers noticed that the brain responses in a particular area of the brain that are active when monkeys reach for a peanut were also active when monkeys simply watched a researcher pick up a peanut.  Further research showed that many of the same neurons that activate for a particular task are just as active when we simply watch someone else do the same activity.  Eureka - our first major insight into empathy, mimicry and learning. Winerman, L.  (2005)  Monitor on Psychology (APA), Vol 35(5) pg. 48-50.
 2. The second article in this issue deals with one of the first big educational arenas to run with this research on mirror neurons, and that is the field of autism.  Could a faulty mirror neuron system be the major cause of autism?  It made sense that the system that allows us to learn through mimicry and empathy, both major factors of autism, may be responsible for the disability.  There are many researchers and theorist working on this topic.  Brain imaging studies are showing that autistic people's mirror system is different than others, but there are still issues to be addressed such as repetitive movements and self-injury. Dingfelder, S.  (2005)  Monitor on Psychology (APA), Vol 35(5).  pg 52-53.
3. The third and final article on mirror neurons in this issue deals with their relationship to language development and other issues in human evolution.  In particular, theorist are looking at the relationship between mirror neurons and language development.  Several researchers theorize that it may have been these mirror neurons that made language and social communication possible in our earliest ancestors, and that there is a strong relationship in the brain between manual dexterity and language and social world - that we may have first communicated with hand movements, then spoken language. Azar, B. (2005) Monitor on Psychology (APA), Vol 35(5) pg 54 - 56.

~~ Most people are fairly comfortable doing simple arithmetic (add / subtract) problems.  However, once math problems become more complex, many people start to complain about the difficulty. As researchers at Harvard have found, it may be because complex problems involve a great deal more brain regions.  A functional MRI shows that we use 3 brain areas for simple addition or subtraction (Right inferior parietal lobule, Left precuneus, and Left superior parietal gyrus) .  However when faced with a complex math problem, another more involved network is called upon to join in. Now we use a network involving those original 3 regions PLUS the left inferior intraparietal sulcus, the left inferior frontal gyrus and the bilateral cingulate.  So complex math problems really do involve a great deal more brain power and brain regions. Kong, J. et al (2005). Cognitive Brain Research, Vol22(3), 397-405.

~~ When it comes to spatial competence, children's brains
see striking developmental growth between the ages of 18 and 24 months. Their ability to mentally "view" multiple locations, see relations among objects and mentally recall a location long after being there, all come into maturity during this time period.  All this is primarily due to major developmental maturation in the brain's hippocampus at this age. Sluzenski, J. et al. (2004).  Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.  Vol 16(8), 1443-1451.

~~ When we are in a noisy room or environment, we use a speaker's body language to assist us in understanding what is being said. Lip reading and hand gestures both give us clues to speech comprehension. Researchers in Australia are using fMRI imaging to find how these cues arehandled by the brain.  While the left hemisphere processes both of thesenon-verbal aids, the regions do differ.  Lip reading is handled in the area called the left posterior superior temporal sulcus whereas hand gestures are interpreted by the intraparietal region.  Obviously one's dependence on one of these non-verbal aids would vary from person to person. Thompson, J. et al. (2004).  Cognitive Brain Research, Vol 21(3), 412-417.

~~ Most of us are intrigued by the Deja Vu experience - the
feeling you get that you have been in a situation or place previously when in fact you know it to be novel.  Alan Brown at SMU in Dallas shares how current neuro-research has presented 3 possible theories for this interesting mental phenomenon.  1) Identical messages are processed by two separate regions of the brain and get separated briefly due to a change in neural transmission speed.  2) One perceptual experience is briefly separated into two due to some internal distraction.  3)  Our implicit familiarity is mistakenly activated without the normally present conscious recollection.   Brown, A. (2004). Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol 13(6), 256-259.

~~ Where is our internal clock?  We may be tempted to think  that our ability to judge brief time intervals is a sophisticated process delegated to our cortex. But studies show that estimated time passage is information that is available to both hemispheres even in people with a severed corpus callosum which connects the two hemispheres.  This means that our internal clock is probably subcortical and that those time estimates can easily be transferred to either hemisphere.  Marzi, C. (2004). Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Vol 8(1), 1-3.   

~~ Brain differences between the genders?  While it makes for great dinner discussion, research continues to find more brain differences attributed to handedness than to gender. Researchers in Turkey have used MRI scans to measure volumes of cerebral ventricles. The lateral ventricle in the left hemisphere has a greater volume for left handers.  The lateral ventricle in the right hemisphere has a greater volume in the brains of right handed people.  In general, left handed people have reduced volume in all brain ventricles.  Ventricle volume differences between male and female brains?  These researchers found none.   Erdogan, A. et al. (2004).  Vol. 114, (1), 67-73.
 
~~ For the most part, we process speech in the auditory area of our left temporal lobe and process music in the auditory area of our right temporal lobe.  While most of us are pretty determined to keep speech and informational sound processing isolated to the left auditory cortex region, we are not so stubborn about music processing.  Research has shown that we occasionally will also process music on the left side too - it just depends on how familiar the tune is.  Tervaniemi, M. & Hugdahl, K. (2003).  Brain Research Reviews, Vol 42(3), 231-246.

~~ Not only is the amygdala of the brain responsible for many of our emotions, it also is what allows us to interpret emotions in others by looking at their facial expressions. According to a study out of Iowa, people with damage in the amygdala region (paired also with damage to the front of the temporal lobe) can't "read" the emotion of a person's face. Schmolck, H & Squire, L. 2001. Neuropsychology, vol. 15(1), 30 - 38.

~~ Autobiographical memory or "episodic" memory has long been considered strongest and easiest recalled when attached to emotion. Researchers in Germany were trying to find out if these "affect-laden" memories used different neural networks and if there was a difference between happy or sad memories in terms of which brain areas were involved in the retrieval. While there were some differences in other brain regions, the area known as the orbitofrontal cortex was common to both types of affect-laden information processing. Happy memories involved more of the hippocampus regions, while sad memories used regions of the right lateral temporal area as well as the left cerebellum. Markowitsch, H. et al. (2003). Cortex. Vol. 39(4-5), 643-665.

~~ We've long known that people who are not touched and held much as very young infants can have a host of problems as teens and adults, but the biology behind it has been vague. Now researchers in Brazil are finding physical brain changes in handled vs non-handled infants. Their study involved other mammals, but found that infants handled during the first week had a very significant reduction or pruning of cells in a region known as the Locus Coeruleus (LC). This LC area is the region responsible for attention, some memory and sleep/wake cycles. Problems in this region have been linked to both attention deficit and hyperactivity. In their study, the changes in the LC remained very different in the "held and touched" infants even for months afterward indicating a long term effect of early touching of infants versus neglect. Lucion, A. (2003). Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol 177(5), 894-903.

~~ In a recent newsletter edition I mentioned a study about how most of us, being right handed, concentrate dopamine more in the right hemisphere of our brains (we spin away from that side). We also mis-judge the midline of our bodies slightly to the left due to that as well. If you don't have this "normal" one-sided distribution of dopamine it can cause an array of schizophrenia related problems. Researchers in Switzerland have found another way to check for this. Fold your arms. Undo them and now fold your hands. Did you match? Left arm on top, left thumb on top? Or right arm on top, right thumb on top? Most people do. The researchers found that in people that have incongruous preferences, it was an indication of an irregular dopamine distribution which could lead to some personality difficulties. Mohr, C. et al. (2003). Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology, Vol 25(7), 1000-1010.

~~ An article in the Journal, "Cortex" suggests that current research may indicate many other regions of the brain are involved in working memory and executive function besides the pre-frontal cortex. For the last several years, we've blamed poor working memory on that area exclusively. The article shows research that may point to a more complex picture. While the frontal cortex may be one of the biggest areas involved, working memory may involve links between many brain regions which need further study. Andres, Pilar. (2003). Cortex, Vol 39(4-5), 871-895.

~~ If you've read much on the brain, you're probably familiar with the region known as Broca's area and how it is responsible for expressive language. However, you may not know that the region is subdivided into distinct regions - BA44 and BA45. Researchers in Bethesda, MD have found that area BA45 is activated by both speech and signing with American Sign Language. BA 44 is responsible for the actual articulation of muscles for verbal speech. BA45 then is apparently responsible for the basic part of language use regardless of the modality of expression. Horwitz, B. et al. (2003). Neuropsychologia. Vol 41(14), 1868-1876.

~~ Stand up, close your eyes, extend your arms out. Now turn in a circle. Which way did you turn? Chances are if you are right-handed you turned left and vice versa. Researchers in Switzerland noticed that turning behavior in animals correlated with hemispheric dopamine asymmetries (DA). Animals tend to turn toward the side with less DA. Apparently handedness in humans is similar, and may help explain the strong right handed preference in humans. (on a side note, other studies have shown that pre-natal stress can cause changes in DA which can change directional bias in animals and reduce the offspring's ability to handle stress). Mohr, C. et al. (2003). Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol 117(6), 1448 - 1452.

~~ Researchers in London have released research which they suggest shows that there are NO regions of the cortex specifically dedicated to "word form processing" - either visual or auditory. Their research involved looking at the regions of the cortex activated with auditory word repetition, reading, picture naming, and environmental sound naming. While predictable areas were activated (Broca's Wernicke's, and other regions) no areas were unique to the processing of word forms. Ahhh, the plot thickens..... Price, C.J. et al (2003). Brain & Language, Vol 86(2), 272-286.

~~ Math giftedness may be the result of better left - right hemisphere communication in the brain. A study of middle school students was undertaken as a join US - Australian research project. The "average" math middle schoolers used the expected left hemisphere for processing "parts" and the right hemisphere for processing "wholes" in analyzing and reasoning. But math-gifted middle schoolers did not show this difference. These students used both hemispheres equally for processing both "parts" and "wholes." The study also went on to elaborate on the gender difference in math giftedness. Testosterone acts prenatally in the development of the right hemisphere leading to math giftedness being found 13 times more often in males. Singh & O'Boyle (2004)Neuropsychology, Vol. 18(2), 371-377.

~~ Certain reading problems have often been blamed on dysfunction in the right occipital lobe which is designed for visual priming - or implicit memory of past visual experience with words (sight words). However a study at UC Davis indicates that in fact both hemispheres may be responsible. What they found is that problems with word-fragment completion involves both hemispheres whereas word stem completion is fairly isolated to the right occipital lobe. Kroll, N et al. (2003). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol 15(60< 833- 842.

~~ Smart people may have more efficient brains. An Austrian study used PET scans to watch people "think." Persons with a higher IQ actually used less area of their cortex when thinking through a problem and had brains that were more focused, than persons with lower IQs. The researchers also saw differences between genders. Females showed greater efficiency on verbal tasks and males on tasks involving figures. Neubauer, A. et al. (2002). Intelligence. Vol 30(6), 515-536.

~~ I have covered lots of research in the past two years regarding the pre-frontal cortex. The region is responsible for so many things including decision making and reward processing. Now York University in Toronto has linked it to one more process - humor. Whether you are processing a pun or a complex semantic joke, you are involving the prefrontal cortex. So now we have one more reason to use humor in the classroom - it forces brain activity up to the higher regions of the brain. Goel, V & Dolan, R. (2001). Nature Neuroscience, vol 4(3), 237-238.

~~ Many of us were excited a few years ago when researchers discovered that it may indeed be possible to regenerate nerve cells in the brain. The research shows that the hippocampus, the area responsible for forming memories, is capable of growing new neurons later in life. Now a study out of Princeton is showing what we can do to increase the likelihood of this growth occurring in our brains. According to this study, new nerve cell growth is started by hormones out of the ovaries and adrenal glands. The new cells will either grow or die depending on the enrichment of our environment, learning and reduction of stress. Gould, E., et. al. 2000. Biological Psychiatry, vol. 48(9), 715-720.

:~~ I was intrigued by a study out of Germany which noted that often people with right hemisphere brain damage cannot mark the center of a horizontal line yet have no problems marking the center of a square. They used MRI to discover that line judgement activates only the right cortex (parietal region) while finding the center of a square actives the lingual gyrus in both brain hemispheres. Their conclusion: the more 'object-like' gestalt you can make a visual stimulus, the greater the brain regions responsible for interpretation. The morale of the story: Use manipulatives and diagrams whenever possible for simple abstract concepts and to involve more of the brain. Fink, G. et al. 2000 Neuropsychologia, Vol. 38(13), 1741-1748.

~~ The University of Calf. medical school used PET scans to examine brain regions of people while speaking. They looked at the brain while they (1)made nonsense syllables, (2)recited the months of the year, and (3)reciting a briefly memorized prose passage. While both the "mindless" recitation of the months and the prose passage used Wernicke's area (the top back part of the temporal lobe) ONLY the prose showed activity in Broca's area. The conclusion: rote memorized verbal tasks require little thought or sophisticated cortical activity (e.g.: "do you want fries with that?). Bookheimer, S., et al. 2000. Neurology, Vol 55(8), 1151-1157.

~~ The University of Colorado sheds some light on the relationship between the hippocampus and the neocortex in learning. Both areas are involved in learning new tasks. The neocortex processes slower, overlaps categories and attempts to find the patterns and structure of the material. The hippocampus processes faster, uses completely separate representations to code facts and details of specific events and is less prone to interference. In other words, the hippocampus memorizes, the neocortex learns. O'Reilly, R. & Rudy, J. 2000. Hippocampus, Vol 10(4), 389-397.

~~ A study out of Duke University shows that, if at all possible, our brain will solve tasks by processing information in only one hemisphere. We see this on simple problem solving tasks. However, as the tasks get more complex, the brain will always choose to process by coordinating information between the two hemispheres. I suppose if we want to give our brains a good well-balanced work-out, we need to do complex tasks once in a while. Weissman and Banich (2000). Neuropsychology, vol 14(1), 41-59.

~~ Planning involves maintaining one main goal while working on subgoals for that main goal. This is apparently one of the unique human brain functions. The National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland has published findings which show that that particular task is performed in the most anterior part of the frontal lobes called the fronto- polar prefrontal cortex. Koechlin et. al, Nature 1999, vol 399(6732) 148-151.

~~ MRI, PET SPECT scans all support major mental disabilities result from adnormalities in the frontal lobes. Major depression and schizophrenia are associated with problems in the left frontal lobe. Impulsiveness and mania in the right frontal lobe. Obsessive-compulsive behaviors tend to result from problems in the orbital frontal lobes. Joseph. Psychiatry: Interpersonal & Biological Processes, 1999, v 62, 2, 138-172.

DEPRESSION

~~ College counseling centers may want to join others in offering a "National Depression Screening Day". Results from last year's screening on Oct 11th showed a large increase in the number of students who came to counseling centers for screening and those who were detected showed greater improvement with treatment. The day also was effective with attracting more males for depression screening than normal. Chamberlin, J. (2007). Monitor on Psychology, Vol 38(9), 68

~~ A substantial number of adolescents with epilepsy and seizures have clinical depression as well, so says the Journal of Epilepsy & Behavior.  The prevalence of depression among these teens has not been widely known and many are not being treated.  Researcher Benjamin Hankin writes on how the role of stressors in a young person's life interact with genetic, biological, cognitive and interpersonal factors to predict depression. Hankin, B. (2006). Epilepsy & Behavior, Vol .8(1), 102-114.

~~ Depression affects about 2% of pre-adolescent children and about 5% of adolescents.  It's concerning because it is often associated with many at-risk behaviors, poor relationships and academic problems plus it tends to pre-dispose adolescents to depression as adults. Schools have attempted to lessen the problem with 2 types of programs - universal prevention programs addressed to the student body at-large and selective interventions specifically targeted to students at risk for depression. A project designed to evaluate the effectiveness of all these programs has found that the targeted programs are more effective than universal programs and that programs which viewed themselves more as "treatments" as opposed to "preventions" were also most effective.  The length of the treatment or length of follow-up did not seem to cause a difference in effectiveness between programs. Horowitz, J. & Garber, J. (2006).  Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychiatry, Vol. 74(3), 401-415.

~~ Most of us know that January is one of the peak months for Seasonal Affective Depression (SAD) due to light shortage.  Currently, the most effective treatment for SAD seems to be spending 30 minutes in front of a 10,000 lux diffused white fluorescent light in the morning.  But some new research is showing that this "light therapy" may actually be a very effective treatment for other types of depression as well.  In fact some research indicates it may be as effective as drug therapy in many people.  Golden, R. et al (2005).  American Journal of Psyciatry, Vol 162(4), 656-662.

~~ Depressed people have a smaller left side to their hippocampus, according to researchers in West Haven, Connecticut. A study show a 20% size difference in this region of the brain whose main job is memory. The smaller size is thought to be due to the increase in glucocorticoids which come with depression. Glucorticoids can damage the hippocampus. Bremner, et.al. American Journal of Psychiatry, 2000. vol. 157(1), 115-117.

~~ The recreational drug Ecstasy is linked to long term reduction in brain serotonin levels leading to depression and Obsessive -Compulsive Disorder. But researchers in Germany find that the drug doesn't actually deplete the brain's serotonin supply but rather changes the physical structure of the neurons in the brains so that they are unable to receive the serotonin. Quednow,B. et al. (2004). Neuro- psychopharmacology, Vol29(5), 982-990.

~~ Loneliness can make you sick. So say researchers in London. A study released this summer shows that lonely people have difficulty with blood pressure, increased natural killer cells produced under stress and higher cortisol levels in the brain in the first half hour after waking. All of these are associated with things that can influence your health. Make it a point to help children and adults who may feel socially isolated and alone. Steptoe, A. et al. (2004). Psychoneuroendocriology. Vol 29(5), 593-611.

~~ If you are working with someone with bi-polar disorder, or just have an interest in it, you may want to look at some research out of the University of Texas Medical Branch regarding new treatments. The research is showing some promise in expanding the treatment options for acute mania, depression and bipolar disorder. The research looks at the traditional clozapine, olanzapine, and risperidone as well as some newer "atypical" treatments such as quetiapine, ziprasidone, and aripiprazole. Hirschfeld, R. (2003). Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. Vol 64(suppl18), 15-21.

~~ Yale University is looking at the chemical and biological workings of antidepressant medications. Depression has long been known to cause structural impairments to the cells in the hippocampus of the brain. Antidepressants have been found to undue much of this damage and actually help stimulate cell growth in the region. According to a new study out of Yale's School of Medicine, these drugs work by manipulating 2 of the body's own chemicals - cyclic AMP which turns on genes responsible for making cell chemicals, and BDNF a common neurotrophin responsible for cell growth and the development of dendrites. D"Sa, C. & Duman, R. (2002). Bipolar Disorders, Vol 4(3), 183-194.

~~ Two studies out of the University of Texas found two significant issues which correlate to depression in adolescent girls. The first study showed that body-image dissatisfaction such as dieting, pressure to be thin and bulimia can all predict depression in adolescent girls. The other study shows that an early age for menarche (sooner than 11.6 years) also can predict depression in adolescent girls. Stice, E. & Bearman, S. 2001. Develop- mental Psychology, Vol. 37(5), 597-607. Stice, E. et al. 2001. Developmental Psychology, Vol 37(5), 608-619.

~~ Left-handed people are over-represented in the depressed population. This is particularly true with males. One group of researchers is suspecting this may be due to the difference in hormone levels in the brain between left and right handed men. Elias, L. et al. 2001. Brain & Cognition. Vol 46(1-2), 125-129.

~~ An interesting study out of Manchester College shows that pregnant women who exhibit depression in their last trimester (high cortisol, high norepinephrine, low dopamine levels) gave birth to infants who also exhibit atypical norepinephrine and dopamine levels. The infants born to depressed mothers also showed inferior performance on infant tests for orientation, reflex and excitability. Lundy, et. al. Infant Behavior & Development, 1999, vol 22(1), 119-129.

~~ The brain area responsible for circadian rhythms (suprachiasmatic nuclei) is analyzed in a new study out of the University Catholique de Louvain in Belgium. The study also describes the strong relationship between depression and sleep disturbances, especially REM deprevation. Emilien, et.al. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, 1999,vo16(1), 18-23.

~~ The University of Helsinki has shown that depressed people exhibit not only cognitive slowing but impairment in visual memory. In their study, verbal memory was not as affected. Kalska, et. al. Applied Neuropsychology, 1999vol. 6(2), 96-107.

DIABETES

~~ The Erasmus University Medical School in the Netherlands is showing a correlation between type 2 diabetes and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Apparently persons with diabetes have double the risk of developing dementia.The risk is especially high if they are insulin users. Ott, et.al., Neurology, 1999 Vol 53(9), 1937-1942.

DYSLEXIA

~~ Some children with dyslexia may find benefit in using colored overlays and glasses for reading.  Researchers at the University of Melbourne have found that this is due to "attentional gating" problems that may occur in the primary visual cortex.  The processing mechanism known as the visual magnocellular pathway is designed to perform a sequential gating of visual information as it comes into the visual cortex for ordering.  Children with impairments in this system may benefit from the use of colored overlays.  Vidyasagar, T. (2005). Perception. Vol 34(8), 903-911.

~~ Until recently, most researchers agreed that dyslexia,
regardless of the person's language, originates from a dysfunction of the left posterior temporal brain region. Some new research begins to question that universal source.  Dyslexia in the Chinese seems to come from a different region altogether (left middle frontal gyrus).  However most of the people looking at this issue still agree that regardless of your language, dyslexia results from an inability to process the phonological features of your language.  Ziegler, J. (2006). Brain and Language, Vol 98(3), 341-343.

~~ Carleton University in Ottawa has been looking at dyslexia and the possibility that some dyslexia may stem from inefficient inter-hemispheric communication, as has been suggested by many researchers. They found however, no real difference between children with and without dyslexia in their ability to communicate efficiently between brain hemispheres.  Instead they found significant delays in word retrieval processing from long term memory.  Sotozaki, H. & Parlow, S. (2006). Brain and Language, Vol 98(1), 89-101.  

~~ Researchers at the University of Colorado are suggesting that schools could better serve children with dyslexia, by adopting a strength-based ecological approach to working with these students as opposed to the current deficit-method of conceptualizing dyslexia. Rather than viewing the condition as a weakness within the child, an ecological approach considers the child along with the systems within which he/she interacts when making assessments. Actions center on identifying systems that impact the child's ability to be successful. D'Amato, R et al (2005). Neuropsychology Review, Vol 15(2), 97-103. ~~ The pathology or physical cause of dyslexia continues to be debated. One of the suspected causes is being investigated by the University of Louisville (KY). Using MRI brain images of dyslexic people, this study found that persons with dyslexia have a significantly smaller cerebral volume but no difference in cortical thickness.  They also found defects in the brain's minicolumns which can affect information processing ability, especially since the study found no difference in white / gray matter ratios.  So while the physical thickness of the cortex remains the same, the volume is less.  Apparently the difference lies in the gyrification or lay out of the foldings.  Casanova, M. et al. (2004). Journal of Child Neurology, Vol 19(4), 275-281.

~~ Yale University is using neuroimaging to identify the area of dysfunction in dyslexia. It appears to be the angular gyrus in the left hemisphere. This region sits right behind Wernicke's area and is thought to be involved in language-related visual input. Their study also shows compensatory behaviors for the deficit to occur in the same general region in the right hemisphere. Pugh, et. al. (2000). Psychological Science, vol. 11(1), 51-56.

~~ Benita Blachman at Syracuse University and his team, including Sally Shaywiitz at Yale released a study comparing daily systematic reading tutoring with traditional school remedial programs for struggling 2nd and 3rd graders. Poor readers were randomly assigned to either their school's remedial reading help - Chapter 1 or resource pull out - or to a treatment group which consisted of 50 minute one-on-one reading tutoring using a 5 skill lesson program based on the current research of the reading process. They used the Woodcock Reading Test to measure progress. Not only was the end of the year testing very different between the two groups, but very significant differences could be seen even a year later after all students had returned to their home based school program. For example, measures of "word reading" after only one month was 9.11 for the treatment group and 7.66 for the control group. At the end of the year, the treatment group's mean score was 26.14 compared to 18.44 for the control. And a year later the treatment group's mean score was 33.05 compared to 26.78 for controls. The research is fairly strong on this topic now. Systematic reading instruction needs to include: sound-symbol associations, phoneme analysis, fluency building, oral reading practice, spelling instruction. We need all the components, taught explicitly and systematically. Blachman, B.et al. (2004). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 96(3), 444-461.

~~ Another study has been released supporting processing difficulties in the left hemisphere in dyslexic children. A researcher used a finger tapping / line orientation test on 3 groups of adolescents: good readers/poor spellers (dysgraphia), poor readers/poor spellers (dyslexia) and good readers/good spellers. When the children tapped their left-hand during the spatial task, all groups performed similarly. But during the right hand tapping (which would involve the left hemisphere) the 2 poor spelling groups had much more interruption of tapping than the good spellers. The dysgraphia and dyslexia groups did not differ from each other in the results. The researcher concludes that these conditions are the result of a left-hemisphere processing limitation which affects much more than just written language. These children have problems disembedding and converting spatial patterns (such as spelling patterns) into a useable temporal form. Mather, D. (2003). Journal of Learning Disabilities. Vol 36(4), 307-317.

~~ The University of Texas is using MEG to shed light on dyslexia. When children without any reading problems have to distinguish between similar spoken syllables, the speech area in the left brain hemisphere work very hard, with the same area on the right side doing very little. When children with dyslexia do the same task, the corresponding area in the right hemisphere actually worked harder than the left. Their research supports the idea that children with dyslexia have a specific neurological deficit in a very isolated brain area dealing with speech. Dyslexia has more to do with sound than with sight. The researchers also support the disuse of IQ in defining reading disabilities - but to look instead at poor reading. And fortunately, with intense intervention, brain patterns can be changed and reading can improve. Breier et.al (2003). Neuropsychology, Vol17 (4), 610-621.

~~ In recent years some researchers have hinted that dyslexia may have cerebellum origins. This idea of blaming the cerebellum was shot down recently by a U.K. research team. Using a variety of tests the researchers did find significant motor control performance problems associated with children with dyslexia but found no impairment in their ability to estimate time - a central cerebellar function. They conclude that phonological and reading problems are probably not caused by cerebellar dysfunction. Ramus, F. et al. (2003). Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disceplines, Vol 44(5), 712-722.

~~ On the same topic of dyslexia, researchers in Norway have found new brain physical differences associated with dyslexia. Using magnetic resonance images, the researchers found that brains of persons with dyslexia have smaller planum temporale areas (posterior superior temporal regions). In addition to being involved in a wide range of neuropsychiatric disorders, this area is sometimes referred to as the brain region where "written and spoken language meet" because the area is activated by both reading and listening. Hugdahl, K. et al. (2003). Neuropsychologia, Vol 41(6), 666-675.

~~ New brain research on dyslexia - a fMRI study by Sally Shaywitz at Yale (if you follow dyslexia research, you are familiar with her team) shows that children with dyslexia can move along two separate brain tracks as adult readers: 1)"Persistently poor readers" (ppr) are those adults who continue to have poor fluency and poor accuracy in their reading and 2) "compensated readers (cr) who are very accurate readers but lack fluency. The first group (ppr) use the same brain area for reading as non- dyslexic readers but use the region differently and rely more on memory based strategies than word analysis strategies. The compensated readers (cr) rely primarily on a different region altogether and use the "traditional" reading brain region very little. (the traditional being the posterior brain region located in the left parietotemporal and occipitotemporal regions). Shaywitz, S. (2003). Biological Psychiatry. Vol 54(1), 25-33.

~~ Another study published also by Yale University by Sally & Bennett Shaywitz, shows dyslexia to result from the inability to comprehend that words can be broken down into smaller units. This dysfunction occurs in both written and spoken language. This is the function of the angular gyrus mentioned in the topic above. Shaywitz. (1999). Developmental Neuropsychology. Vol 16(3), 383-384.

~~ In a "chicken or egg"debate, a study by Rush University in Chicago proposes that deep dyslexia and it's corresponding damaged left hemisphere function actually results from problems with the right hemisphere. The study proposes that the problem arises because the right hemisphere involves itself in the reading process, rather than the other way around. Beeman, et.al. (2000), vol. 71(2), 299-309.

~~ National Institute of Health, Bethesda Maryland is shedding more light on the biology of dyslexia. They blame lower blood flow in the temporal and inferior parietal regions of the brain as a problem in dyslexia. In addition, they have found a reverse problem in a region known as the left angular gyrus. Increased blood flow in this area improves reading skill in non-dyslexia persons, but causes worse reading skills in people with dyslexia. Rumsey, et.al., 1999. Brain & Language vol. 70(2), 187-204.

~~ The University of Wurzberg conducted a study showing that early training in knowledge of letters and sound structure of spoken language can reduce the risk of dyslexia. Schneider, Roth, Ennemaser. J. of Ed Psych 2000 vol 92,(2) 284-295.

~~ Dartmouth medical school is using MRI imaging to show that there is a structural difference in the brains of people with dyslexia. In particular, they've found an area of the perisylvian region (associated with language) called the caudal infrasylvian surface (CIS) which is significantly larger in the brains of persons with dyslexia. Green, et. al, (1999). Neurology. vol. 53(5), 974-981

~~ The Irlen lenses are being tested using magnetoencephalography - the most current and sophisticated brain imaging technique. Erlen lenses are often called "ROSE-COLORED" lenses and have recently been used with varied success for the treatment of some types of dyslexia. The good news: there appears to be significant evidence that these colored filters do reduce or eliminate the conflicting brain pathway firings in some children and enable them to make sense out of what they are reading. The bad news: they don't work for everyone with dyslexia, different colors work for different kids (they need to be "fitted") and like everything - more research needs to be done and funding is limited.

GANGS

~~ Another University of Chicago study found the following as predictors of gang activity:

--young age onset of conduct disorder

--having friends who engage in agressive deliquency.

--family income and parental supervision.

Lahey, et. al, (1999). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. vol. 27(4). 261-276.

GENDER DIFFERENCES

~~ Boys with higher brain serotonin levels as children have less risk of being aggressive adolescents.  Researchers at Queens College in New York recently finished a longitudinal study where they tracked boys with various disruptive disorders from their childhood through adolescence.  While not all boys with low serotonin levels became aggressive during adolescence, it was a contributing factor and no boys with high serotonin levels in childhood displayed aggressive behaviors during their adolescence.  Halperin, J. et al, (2006). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol 56(7), 833-840. 

~~ For those of you collecting gender differences in the brain, you may want to read a new study out of Tulane University in New Orleans.  Researchers there are studying brain gender differences for auditory processing.  The Perisylvian region of the brain is