ADD
~~ New research indicates that persons
with Attention
Deficit Disorder(ADD) may have a shortened perception of the time span
of temporal events - particularly in working memory. This is suspected
to be the result of an impaired dopamine system involving the
prefrontal
cortex. They tested this theory by checking what was the minimum tempo
that rhythmic movement can be sustained in both persons with and
without
ADD. It turns out that those with ADD have a rhythm cut-off that was
much
sooner than those without. Apparently these problems with dopamine
delivery have recalibrated the internal clock that sets the time scale
for our
subjective thought process. Gilden, D. & Marusich, L. (2009).
Neuropsychology. Vol 23(2), 265-269.
~~
A therapy technique called "Musical
Attention Training Program has been touted as a beneficial treatment
for
Attention Deficit Disorder. Researchers in Toronto have conducted a
study which shows some promise for this therapy when used with
attention problems that are often
associated with brain injury. Knox, R. et al. (2003). Music
Therapy Perspectives, Vol 21(2), 99-104.
~~
In recent years,
problems in the frontal lobe have been blamed for ADD. But new research
is now showing that there may be areas more strongly linked. A study at
Leiden, Netherlands (Leiden Univ) found that children with ADD have
more delay in "orienting to cues" rather than impaired decision making
(which was previously thought to be the culprit). Using new imaging
techniques, they have found that the children seem to have a problem in
a lower region of the brain, the attention system. This means that they
are slow to detect the source of new incoming stimuli or cannot
separate one source from another. Similar information is coming from
the University Clinic for Child & Adolescent Psychiatry in
Essen
Germany. Their imaging study shows impaired function also in the limbic
system of ADD children in what they call "intercortical dialog".
Basically, problems with the left side which processes details and the
right side which specializes in global processing. A study at the
University of Denver, Dept. of Psychology is also showing that ADD
involves not only the frontal lobe, but other regions as well,
particularly the right parietal lobe.
~~
A study at the
University of Pittsbugh, School of Medicine, looked at highly
aggressive children diagnosed with ADD. Half the children were given a
placebo (sugar pill) and the other half were administered
methylphenidate (Ritalin). In their double-blind study, the Ritalin
group had significantly reduced their aggressive behavior.
~~
The University of
Kentucky Medical Center is defending testing accommodation for persons
with ADD. They state that test agencies have been unable to prove that
test validity for standardized tests at any level (even the state Bar
exam) is altered by accommodation for ADD.
ADHD
~~ Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and
oppositional defiant disorder (ODD/CD) can be diagnosed with some
accuracy at age 3. Researchers looked at 168, 3-year-olds with behavior
problems. They assessed them for ADHD and ODD and then followed
them for the next several years. The diagnosis of ADHD in a 3 year old
was accurate in 75% of the children and the diagnosis of ODD was
accurate in 66% of the children. So while many 3 years old with
behavior
problems do grow out of the behaviors, early diagnosis may allow
children
to be watched and perhaps provided with early intervention strategies.
Harvey, E. (2009) Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.
Vol 77(2), 349-354.
~~
Traditionally, researchers considered that the
brains of
children with ADHD were just developing differently than the brains of
children without ADHD. But new MRI research show the
condition
may actually be a brain delay, rather than just abnormal development.
Normally, a child's cortex thickens slowly up to around age 7, then
thins out. It turns out that the cortex of a brain with ADHD
doesn't reach its peak thickness until around age 10. This
delay,
coupled with an early motor cortex maturity may explain some of the
symptoms of ADHD. Price, M (2008) Monitor on Psychology, Vol
39(2), pg 12.
~~
Young children with ADHD who later also develop
conduct
disorders are at a greater risk for substance abuse and criminal
behavior. However, researchers have found that the parenting
of
these children has a large effect on their outcome. Maternal
depression poses the greatest risk for these children and positive
parenting during the early years with these children offers significant
protection again these risk factors. Chronis, A. et al.
(2007).
Developmental Psychology, Vol 43(1) 70-82
~~
For years we've associated problems in the
prefrontal
cortex as one of the major contributors to ADHD. Researchers
at
Queens College in NYC are arguing that model. They
hypothesize
that the development of this area actually just correlates with the
reduction in ADHD symptoms as the person develops. They feel
that
ADHD is due completely to noncortical dysfunction, develops very early
in the brain's life and remains constant throughout life despite the
fact that some symptoms may lessen with development. Haperin, J.
&
Schulz, K. (2006). Psychological Bulletin, Vol 132(4), 560 - 581.
~~ A recent article by leading Harvard Medical School
experts summarizes the most up-to-date research and understanding of
ADHD(attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder):
The disorder affects about 10% of all children worldwide.
About
one-half of the children with ADHD will continue to have some type of
impairment from it through adulthood. Genetic studies have
shown
it to be highly heritable and while heredity seems to be the leading
cause, some pre-natal and even early childhood events can also be
linked to ADHD. From a molecular standpoint, research points to
catecholaminergic circuits and impaired transmission of the
neurotransmitter dopamine. Research in treatments has shown both
non-stimulant and long-acting traditional treatments such as
methylphenidate (Ritalin) to be safe and effective, especially when
coupled with behavioral interventions and treatment.
Biederman,
J. & Faraone, S. (2005). Lancet. Vol 366(9481)
237-248.
~~ From
Beijing, China we see an
interesting study looking at the different responses to the use of
methylphenidate (brand name, Ritalin) for ADHD and a very specific
gene. Some children respond well to Ritalin for inattention,
some
for
impulsivity and some for both. What these researcher found is
that
those children who responded well to Ritalin for impulsivity were also
children who have a very specific version of the gene responsible for
norepinephrine transport. So the inattention and impulsivity
components to ADHD may come from separate genetic factors. Yang, L. et
al (2004). Journal of the American Academy of Child &
Adolescent
Psychiatry. Vol 43(9), 1154-1158.
~~ A
recent Greek study
looked at verbal memory and recall times for children with and without
ADHD. Their subjects were school children 7 - 11 years
old.
They gave
them numbers and phrases to be learned for later recall.
While
both
the children with ADHD and those without scored equally well on
accuracy when later tested, the ADHD children took a significantly
longer time to recall their answers and a much longer time to
articulate them. Kourakis, L. et al (2004).
DevelopmentalNeuropsychology. Vol 26(2), 565-570.
~~ More
research out now on
the genetic component to
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Thought to be a
genetic
event with many genes involved, UCLA researchers have found additional
evidence pointing to one of the culprit genes - named SNAP-25 (for
those biology enthusiasts - it's a mutation on the 3' end of an
untranslated region which encodes a synaptic vesicle docking
protein).
The gene most commonly is associated with paternal
transmission.
(sorry Dads....hate to keep blaming you). Kustanovich, V. et. al
(2003). Molecular Psychiatry. Vol 8(3), 309-315.
~~ Diagnosing
pre-schoolers with ADHD seems to some to be inaccurate, unneccessary
and perhaps even detrimental. A study from Dalhousie University in
Halifax shows just the opposite. They observed 50, 3 to 6 year olds in
a preschool setting, half diagnosed with ADHD and half not. The ADHD
children were off-task significantly more time than the non-ADHD
children. They were also much more talkative and active. Their
conclusion: early diagnosis of ADHD appears valid and may be useful in
establishing behavioral programs at an early age to help these children
be successful. DeWolfe, N, et. al. 2000. Journal of Attention
Disorders, Vol 4(2), 80-90.
~~
We now have one
of the first pieces of research to show an actual physical brain change
using biofeedback for ADHD. Researchers in Germany put children (ages 7
- 13) diagnosed with Attention Deficit - Hyperactivity Disorder through
a "slow cortical potentials" (SCPs) training program for 3 weeks. They
found a fairly significant reduction in impulsivity and improved
behavior ratings from parents as well as changes in actual brain
potentials. Heinrich, H. et al (2004). Biological Psychiatry, Vol.
55(7), 772-775.
~~
We've long known
that people who are not touched and held much as very young infants can
have a host of problems as teens and adults, but the biology behind it
has been vague. Now researchers in Brazil are finding physical brain
changes in handled vs non-handled infants. Their study involved other
mammals, but found that infants handled during the first week had a
very significant reduction or pruning of cells in a region known as the
Locus Coeruleus (LC). This LC area is the region responsible for
attention, some memory and sleep/wake cycles. Problems in this region
have been linked to both attention deficit and hyperactivity. In their
study, the changes in the LC remained very different in the "held and
touched" infants even for months afterward indicating a long term
effect of early touching of infants versus neglect. Lucion, A. (2003).
Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol 177(5), 894-903.
~~
The American Journal of
Psychiatry reports that the new once-a-day atomoxetine treatment for
ADHD seems to be very effective in treating the disorder in both
children and adolescents with very few side effects or negative safety
issues. Atomoxetine is sold under the name of Strattera. Michelson, D.
(2002). American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol159(11), 1896-1901.
~~
Here's more research on
the genetic side of ADHD as well as an interesting gender preference
for inheriting the disorder. Trinity College, Ireland, has found 3
genetic ties to ADHD, all having to do with dopamine levels. Dopamine
receptors, the dopamine transporter genes and genes responsible for
synthesis of dopamine are all linked to the disorder. The study also
found that the ADHD responsible genes tend to come from the father's
genetic make-up more so than the mother's genes. Kirley, A. et al.
(2002). Neuropsychopharmacology, vol 27(4), 607-619.
Do you inherit ADHD? Yes,
according to the research that continues to support the connection
between genes and ADHD. Two new studies point to more than one gene as
being involved in the disorder. Research out of Hamilton, Ontario
correlates ADHD to the DRD4 dopamine receptor gene. (specifically the
gene's exon III coding sequence). Other research shows that the DRD4
may interact with other gene regions such as the serotonin transporter
promoter gene. Schmidt, et al. 2001. Psychiatric Genetics, vol 11(1),
25-29. and Auerbach, J. et al. as above pg. 31-35.
~~ Alcohol,
nicotine, caffeine, stress -
which of these substances/events
when used by a pregnant woman is most likely to lead to ADHD in the
child? Nicotine! - according to a summary of the research released out
of Denmark. Nicotine use during pregnancy showed the greatest risk for
Attention Deficit & Hyperactivity problems later in the child's
life. Alcohol and caffeine studies could not support any contribution
and the research on stress shows that it may contribute slightly to
ADHD. Linnet, K., et al. (2003). American Journal of Psychiatry. Vol
160(6), 1028-1040
~~
ADHD children show a
very predictable instability in their sleep patterns. The
irregularities include: sleep onset, sleep duration, and amount of true
sleep received. In fact the pattern is so distinct and severe, that the
National Institute of Mental Health feels that sleep pattern could be
used as a diagnosis for ADHD. Gruber, Sadeh, & Raviw. 2000.
Journal
of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 39(4),
495-501.
~~
A new study out on
medicating ADHD, shows that the best results were obtained when using
Ritalin (MPH) mixed with caffeine. The study showed that impulsivity
and agression as well as planning skills were most effected by the
combination of these two drugs. (When used separately, Ritalin is more
effective than caffeine and amphetimines work about as well as
Ritalin.) Leon, M. 2000. Journal of Attention Disorders, vol 4(1),
27-47.
~~
According to a study
published last year, there appears to be an optimum window of learning
opportunity after administering ADD medication. In the study of ADHD
boys aged 9 - 11, reading was greatly improved (mastery, fewer errors,
higher rate per minute) during the first hour after Ritalin compared to
3-4 hours after medication. Kastner, J., et.al. (2000). Psychology in
the Schools, vol. 37(4) 367-377.
~~
The Journal of
Psychiatry reports that if you are going to develop manic-depression,
the symptoms will show much sooner if you have AD/HD. Sacks, G. et.al.
(2000). American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 157(3), 466-468.
~~
Buffalo State College
researched the ADHD child's ability to identify emotions. Using
pictures, video, and audio tapes, they found that non-ADHD children
were quite competent in identifying emotion in others while ADHD
children were severely impaired in the skill. Norvilitus, et. al.
(2000). Journal of Attention Disorders, vol. 4(1), 15-26.
~~
Several long term
studies have been tracking the inattention curve in ADHD children as
they grow. Inattention in ADHD children peaks between the age of 7 and
8. After that it tends to stabilize through adolescence and adulthood.
Hyperactivity frequently disappears between the ages of 7 and 9. ADD
does not. Hart, E. et. al. (2000). Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, vol 28(3), 311. Biederman, J. et.al. (2000). American
Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 157(5), 816-818.
~~
A Purdue University
study of 120 boys, aged 7-13 years shows some typical work patterns in
ADHD children. The study compared boys with ADHD to non-ADHD peers in a
work/problem solving activity. The study found that ADHD boys were less
effective in social interactions, but interestingly, were also less
frustrated and less helpless than their non-ADHD peers. Children with
ADHD were more likely to attribute any success they had to "luck" or
simply the ease of the task. Non-ADHD children in the study tended to
blame failures on themselves, in that they didn't "try hard enough."
Haza, et. al. (2000)Child Development, vol 71(2) 432-446.
~~
Despite rumor to the
contrary, ADHD children are NOT more at-risk for substance abuse than
their non- ADHD peers. However, if the ADHD is coupled with a Conduct
Disorder, then the ADHD child is more at risk for substance-abuse.
Molina, et. al. (1999). Psychology Addictive Behaviors, vol. 13(4) 348
- 358.
~~
High School teachers
have a wide range of attitudes toward children with ADHD and LD
(learning disabilities). According to a survey of both regular and
special educators, 46% thought that ADHD children would carry a
multitude of problems into adulthood. 13% thought that learning
disabilities resulted from parents "spoiling" their children. 95%
thought that LD students are entitled to a more lenient education.
Brook, et. al. (2000). Patient Education & Counseling, vol.
40(3),
247-252.
~~
Leroux and
Levitt-Perlman write in the Roeper Review that we are focusing on the
wrong side of ADHD. They criticize that research and articles always
emphasize the negative aspects of the disorder, when in fact, many
characteristics of ADHD resemble those of gifted and talented persons
as well as resembling creative talents such as divergent thinking.
Leroux & Levitt-Perlman (2000). Roeper Review, vol. 22(3)
171-176.
~~
Can children with ADHD
comprehend television and video to the same degree as non-ADHD?
Apparently not, according to the University of Kentucky. In a study
with 7-12 year olds, attention decreased sharply during a video,
especially when distractors such as toys were present. This inattention
meant that while the ADHD children could recall basic facts of the
story afterward, they had a much lower understanding of the
relationships among the events in the story. Lorch et.al. (2000). J. of
Abnormal Psych., vol 109(2), 321-330.
~~
New findings in EEG
patterns may soon give a more valid diagnosis of attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder. Researchers in Australia have found distinct
EEG patterns in the brains of children with ADHD. The unique EEG waves
show an immature, hypoaroused central nervous system. Clarke, A.
(2002). Clinical Neurophysiology, Vol 113(7), 1036-1044.
~~
Diagnosing pre-schoolers with ADHD seems to
some to be inaccurate, unnecessary and perhaps even detrimental. A
study from Dalhousie University in Halifax shows just the opposite.
They observed 50, 3 to 6 year olds in a preschool setting, half
diagnosed with ADHD and half not. The ADHD children were off-task
significantly more time than the non-ADHD children. They were also much
more talkative and active. Their conclusion: early diagnosis of ADHD
appears valid and may be useful in establishing behavioral programs at
an early age to help these children be successful. DeWolfe, N, et. al.
2000. Journal of Attention Disorders, Vol 4(2), 80-90.
~~
Children who have ADHD
coupled with Conduct Disorder apparently really just have a version of
Conduct Disorder rather than an complication of attention deficit. New
research out of Toronto shows that the inhibitory control problems seen
in ADHD children are not found in ADHD children who also have conduct
disorder (ADHD+CD). In lab tasks where children are tested on their
ability to stop an ongoing activity, only the "plain" ADHD children are
severely impaired. So the ADHD+CD should really just be CD children who
have attention problems as well. Schachar, et. al. 2000. J. of Abnormal
Child Psychology, vol 28(3), 227-235.
~~
A study at the
University of Pittsburgh school of Medicine shows that middle school
children with ADHD are no more at risk for substance abuse than their
non-ADHD classmates. However, these children are more at risk if the
ADHD was coupled with Conduct Disorder. Molina, et.al. Psychology of
Addictive Behaviors. 1999, vol. 13(4), 348-358.
~~
Persons with bi-polar
disorder (manic- depression) have an earlier onset of symptoms if they
also have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. This is according
to a study out of Massachusetts General Hospital. Sachs, G. et.al.
2000. Am. Journal of psychiatry. vol. 157(3), 466-468.
~~
Two studies support
concern for ADHD individuals into adolescence and adulthood. Curran et.
al, (1999) found a high percentage of the prison population has ADHD
(9% of prisoners vs. 2.5% of young adults in the general population).
Clure, et. l (1999) found that among inpatients for substance use
disorder (alcohol and/or cocaine use), 32% met the criteria for ADHD,
and that 35% of those inpatients had a childhood diagnosisi of ADHD and
continued to have problems with it into adulthood. Clure, et. al,
(1999). American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. vol. 25(3),
441-448.
Curran,
et. al., (1999).
American Journal of Psychiatry. vol. 156(10), 1664-1665.
~~
The University of
Wisconsin has published a study tracking students with ADHD into
college. They found that college students with ADHD were more likely to
be on academic probation and had a higher incidence of academic
problems than their peers. The study claimed that the problems
experienced by these students were similar to those of a learning
disorder.
~~
Oregon Health Sciences
University looked at the effect of ADHD on siblings. Their conclusion:
the siblings frequently felt victimized and that victimization is often
overlooked or discounted by other members of the family. Their
recommendation: there is a strong need for increased social and mental
health services for all members of families with a member diagnosed
with ADHD.
AGING
BRAIN
~~ At last - some positive news from
science
seeking help for spatial learning and working memory problems
associated with aging. While so far, it's only been tested on rats, a
common vascular drug appears to affect a gene called KIBRA which is
involved in learning and memory tasks in the hippocampus of young and
middle-aged brains. The drug dilates blood vessels in the brain and
appears to be a significant cognitive enhancer. At least in rats.
Huentelman, M. et al. (2009) Behavior
Neuroscience. Vol 123(1), 218-223
~~
Many of us were excited
a few years ago when researchers discovered that it may indeed be
possible to regenerate nerve cells in the brain. The research shows
that the hippocampus, the area responsible for forming memories, is
capable of growing new neurons later in life. Now a study out of
Princeton is showing what we can do to increase the liklihood of this
growth occuring in our brains. According to this study, new nerve cell
growth is started by hormones out of the ovaries and adrenal glands.
The new cells will either grow or die depending on the enrichment of
our environment, learning and reduction of stress. Gould, E., et. al.
2000. Biological Psychiatry, vol. 48(9), 715-720.
~~
More research is
out supporting the shift in memory regions as we age. This time, the
University of Illinois has been using fMRI imaging to compare memory
probes and working memory issues in young brains and older brains. As
we've seen in other studies, the older brain activates frontal lobe
areas for working memory and memory retrieval whereas younger brains
use the hippocampus regions. This new research continues to support the
theory that the brain compensates as we get older, for the decay in our
hippocampus areas. Park, D. et al. (2003). Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience. Vol 15(8), 1122- 1134.
~~
UCLA's School of
Medicine has released some preliminary research indicating that
estrogen replacement therapy may help preserve brain tissue in healthy
elderly women. Normal aging causes brain tissue lose, specifically
cortical atrophy, central atrophy, deep white-matter hyperintensities
and periventricular hyperintensities in the brain. Their study tracked
post menopausal women over several years and found that the brains of
women receiving estrogen had less atrophy in those areas than the
brains of the control group not taking the estrogen. Cook, I. et al.
(2002). International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, Vol 17(7),
610-618.
~~
Feeling the brain effects of aging?
Organization and decision making skills may decline as the brain ages
due to the deterioration of the frontal lobes. However a study in
Scotland shows that not all areas of the frontal lobes decline with
age. The researchers looked at the 2 main regions of the frontal lobes
- the dorsolateral and ventromedial. One handles social decision
making, the other handles organization and working memory. Apparently
it is the organization and working memory region that is most affected
by aging. Our social decision making remains relatively intact.
MacPherson, S. et al. (2002). Psychology & Aging, Vol 17(4),
598-609
~~
Feeling the mental
effects of your brain's age? Decisions, memory and word retrieval seems
to be slowing down? You may be interested in some of the new research
on how our brain ages. Apparently we lose production of dopamine,
reduce metabolism in decision making regions, and generally increase
thinking time as we rely on greater regions of our brains. These two
recent studies have shed more light of the biochemistry of the aging
brain. A Duke University study shows that while young brains use memory
to retrieve on a recognition task, blood flow increases in the right
prefrontal cortex. While retrieving similar recognition memory, older
brains (60 - 80 years) increase blood flow in several regions of the
cortex as the retrieval process slows down. A separate study out of New
York shows that the reduction in dopamine activity in the older brain
results from a decrease in the receptors which transmit dopamine
signals and consequently this results in a more limited glucose
metabolism rate. This effect is strongest in the frontal cortex,
although some areas of the temporal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus
are involved as well. Madden, et.al. (1999). Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, vol 11(5), 511- 520. Volkow, et.al. (2000). American
Journal of Psychiatry. vol 157(1), 75-80
ALCOHOL
~~
Bond University in
Australia addresses the issue of why alcohol and aggression have such a
close association. In fact, in most mammals, humans included, even
moderate amounts of alcohol tend to increase violent and/or aggressive
behavior. Their explanation is that it creates a two-fold event
involving both the cortex and subcortical areas. First, alcohol
disrupts the performance of the pre-frontal cortex - the region
responsible for making good, sound decisions. The second problem is
that alcohol also tends to disinhibit some subcortical regions, which
are responsible for our more primitive drives (sex, fight/flight,
eating). So the combination of the primitive drive region feeling more
"free" to express itself and the executive controlling function of the
brain put on hold, leads to the problems we see. Lyvers, M. 2000.
Experimental & Clinical Psychopharmacology, vol. 8(4), 607-608.
Peter Giancola at the University of Kentucky has published a similar
study in the same issue, pages 576-597.
~~
In the Harvard
Mental Health Letter released this week, there is good news for friends
and families of problem drinkers. While the FDA recommends 2 alcoholic
drinks per day, nearly a third of Americans consume more than that. But
many of these drinkers can be encouraged to cut back through informal
channels and discussions. In fact 75% of problem drinkers or abuses
recover without intense therapy and intervention. Family, school
counselors and friends can help with simple suggestions such as setting
limits. You can read the suggestions at: www.health.harvard.edu.
~~
Because of the
plasticity and period of change experienced by the neurons in the
adolescent brain, they may be more susceptible to damage by alcohol
than adults. According to a study at the University of California, San
Diego, synaptic connections continue to increase and decrease through
age 20, indicating the brain may continue its rapid developmental state
longer than previous thought. Therefore, alcohol use during teenage
years may have a more significant effect and create more damage to the
adolescent brain than the adult brain. Tapert, S. et. al. National
Institutes of Health News Release Feb. 14, 2000.
ALZHEIMER'S
~~
Memory loss in
Alzheimer's disease versus memory loss associated with other aging
issues are both found in the hippocampus. However, recent fMRI images
show that the hippocampus deterioration in Alzheimer's patients is more
pervasive and multi-regional, whereas other memory loss due to age is
restricted to only one region of the hippocampus (the subiculum).
Small, et. al. Annals of Neurology, 1999, v 45, 4, 466-472.
~~
Florida Atlantic
University released a study showing that although memory loss is great,
the sense of self or personal identity of an individual persists into
late stage of Alzheimer's disease. (AD) J. of Nursing Scholoarship,
1999, v 31,2, 121-125. Tappan et.al.
ANXIETY
~~ Can
children have anxiety
disorders? The question has created much debate in recent
years
in the medical and psychological community. Researchers at
the
University of Illinois - Urbana have used a technique known as
"voxel-based morphometry" to compare the brains of children diagnosed
with Anxiety Disorder and a group of "normal" children. It turns out
that the children with Anxiety Disorder had significantly reduced gray
matter volume in their left amygdala (an area very much involved in
emotional response.) Milham, M. et al. (2005). Biological
Psychiatry, Vol 57(9), 961-966.
~~
Columbia University has
released a study showing a strong relationship between anxiety and poor
memory ability -The relationship is particularly strong in young boys
at risk for deliquency. Pine, et al. (1999). Journal of American
Academy of child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Vol. 38(3). 1024-1031.
~~
While Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
generally appears soon after a trauma, the full effect may not be felt
for years. According to a Yale University study, PTSD can often return,
in a more severe form, during dementia. van Acterberg, M. et al.
(2001). Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, Vol 62(3), 206-207.
~~
Panic attacks often result from problems with
the brain pathways that control for the acquisition of conditioned
fear. Conditioned fear involves regions of the brain such as the
amygdala, the brain stem, the hippocampus and parts of the pre-frontal
cortex. This is pretty much all the major brain regions which may
account for the confusion and overwhelming emotions during fear and
panic. Sinha, S., Laszlo, A. & Gorman, J. (2000). Journal of
Affective Disorders. Vol 61(3), 191-200.
~~
According to a Boston study, PTSD results
from problems or a disruption in the pre-frontal cortex. This is the
region of the brain responsible for decision making. Koenen, K., et al.
(2001). Brain & Cognition, Vol 45(1), 64-78.
~~
Most people have a hand preference - we are
generally either right handed or left handed. But some people show no
preference and are referred to as mixed handed. Adolescents with
mixed-handedness are more prone to trauma symptoms and panic disorders.
Chemtob, C. et al. (2001). Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease,
Vol
189(1), 58-60.
~~
Concerned that you or a loved one is
suffering from PTSD? A urine test may help determine the diagnosis.
Persons with PTSD show increased levels of noradrenaline and dopamine
in their urine. Tobin, J. (2001). Irish Journal of Psychological
Medicine, Vol 18(1), 27-29.
~~
Research continues to show the detrimental
effect of stress on the hippocampus and its role in memory. Stress
particularly effects short term memory. Take a walk. McEwen, B.
&
Magarinos, A. (2001). Human Psycho- pharmacology Clinical &
Experimental, Vol 16(1), S7-S19.
ARTS
~~
Music appreciation appears to be a skill we
are born with - or apparently most of us are born with it. The ability
to perceive and enjoy music has a real biological basis according to
new studies. "Congenital Amusia" is the name given to the condition
some people are born with, in which all music sounds the same to them.
These people lack the ability to process pitch information. Stewart, L.
& Walsh, V. (2002). Current Biology, Vol. 12(12), 420-421.
AUTISM/ASPERGER'S
~~ A diagnosis of autism still comes too
late
for most children. Despite most parent's concern for their child
starting at around 18 months and good established diagnosis techniques
available for children at 24 months, most kids are not diagnosed with
autism until between the ages of 3 and 4.
This is primarily because parents tend to use pediatricians as their
first point
of inquiry and they, as a group, are ill prepared for early detection.
Elmensdorp, S. "Identification of Autism-Specific Impairments Through
Behavioral Observation." Presented at APA National Conference, Boston,
MA Aug. 16, 2008.
~~ Treatments and school intervention for
persons with autism has changed dramatically in the last 2 decades,
primarily
because psychologists have broadened the criteria for diagnosis. Two
decades ago, 80% of persons with an autism diagnosis were classified
with mental retardation. Today less than 50% carry that classification.
Two decades ago, more than half of persons with autism had severe
language delays or no language. Today only 15 - 20% of persons with
autism have that level of language impairment. (some of this is due to
a widening of the Autism spectrum, some due to early intervention
allowing children various routes to communication which later lead to
speech). "Current Issues in Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders: New
Measures and Methodology." A presentation by Catherine Lord, PhD,
August 15, 2008, Boston, MA: APA National Convention.
~~
Researchers in Toronto have released a study
showing that
they have found numerous locations on the human genome that are link to
autism. The gene abnormalities are either DNA deletions or
total
gene duplications and are not necessarily found in the parents -
indicating these may be random pre-natal mutations and not genetically
inherited predispositions. These genetic mutations can be
tested
for. Many can be directly linked to specific behaviors such as a
deletion on chromosome 16 which leads to language delays.
Canadian Press (Jan 17, 2008) APA "Psychology in the News".
Psychport.com
~~
While genetic contributions to autism have been
generally
accepted
for many years now, finding the exact genetic marker or biological
basis has been up for much discussion and search. By looking
for
brain
anomalies in the brains of unaffected relatives of persons with autism,
researchers have found some clues to the puzzle. Much of this
new
research continues to point to the genes that code for a serotonin
transporter protein. These rare genes relating to serotonin may
increase a person's risk for autism. Kuehn, B. (2006).
Journal of
the
American Medical Association, Vol 295(1), 19-20.
~~
Serotonin levels and autism have been linked for many years
now.
The fact that many persons with autism are found to have very high
levels of serotonin and that many symptoms of autism are successfully
treated with SSRIs, has led researchers to assume the problem may be
with the serotonin transporter gene, 5-HHT. However researchers at Mt
Sinai School of Medicine have examined the most likely areas of this
gene and have found no relationship between autism and the more common
5HHT variants. Ramoz, N. et al.(2006). Biological Psychiatry.
vol
60(2), 186-191
~~
Children's Hospital in Seattle has been
studying the
volume of the corpus callosum compared to total cerebral volume in
children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) versus typically
developing children. Children with ASD had a disproportionately smaller
corpus callosum than typical children. This could mean that
there
is a
decrease in interhemisperic connectivity (and communication) in persons
with ASD or that the larger cerebral volume seen in ASD is due to an
increase in tissues that are simply not represented in the corpus
callosum. Boger-Megiddo, I., et al(2006). Journal of Autism
and
Developmental Disorders, Vol 36(6), 733-739.
~~ Children
with autism struggle not so much with facts and
information, but with the source of that information. Source
memory,
as it is called, often involves the social aspects of
context.
Researchers in Connecticut have compared the memory of children with
autism to those without and found that factual memory remains fairly
equal. But the source memory in children with autism
functions at
significantly lower levels. O'Shea, A et al. (2005). Developmental
Neuropsychology, Vol 27(3), 337-360.
~~ Asperger
Syndrome:
nature vs nurture? Asperger syndrome (one of the autism
spectrum
disorders) can be caused by chromosome abnormalities, prenatal events,
or genetics. Most of the time Asperger syndrome has a genetic component
(55% of all cases). It tends to follow paternal blood lines
as
about
half of all people with Asperger syndrome have some type of autism
spectrum disorder in their father's family line. About 25% of
Asperger
syndrome cases result from some prenatal or birth event. Gillberg, C.
& Cederlund, M. (2005). Journal of Autism &
Developmental
Disorders, Vol 35(2), 159-166.
~~
One of the most common questions I get asked
is "What is the
difference between high-functioning autism and Asperger's syndrome?"
I've even known many to use the two terms interchangeably.
They
are not the same
thing at all. This month's issue of APA's monitor has an
excellent article
demarcating the two.
While as adults, persons with Asperger's and persons with high
functioning
autism may look very similar, the differences stand out strongly in
children.
The key can be found in language development. Children with
Asperger's syndrome
have rather typical language development or even advanced language
development.
While they don't use language well for social interaction as in
give-and-take, they do
tend to drone on about their favorite subject. Children with
autism struggle greatly
with language. They tend to have strengths in motor skills
and
manipulating objects.
A new study just released compared children with Asperger's and
children with
autism who had very similar IQ's (in the normal and above normal range
only).
The difference? The autistic children performed well on
visual
spatial perception tasks, like puzzles and on motor skills.
The
children with Asperger's syndrome
showed deficits in these sub-tests but did very well on vocabulary,
verbal
memory and auditory perception. So, if you are trying to determine
whether a child
has Asperger's syndrome or high functioning autism, look into the
history of their
language development. Dingfelder, S. (2004).
Monitor on
Psychology. Vol 35(11), 48 - 49.
~~ Since we're on the topic of autism, another new study jumped out
at me this week out of Columbia University. They did a
complete
review of all
the brain imaging, neurological and biochemistry research that's been
done to
date on autism. They drew 4 definitive conclusions about what
is
now known
about this disorder. (1). It is a heterogeneous
disorder
with most likely many
causes. (2) brain imaging has shown a wide range of
anatomical
differences all
of which reflect problems early in the brains development having to do
with neuron
growth and pruning. (3) The neurochemical differences occur
early
and are pervasive
rather than localized to any one area. (4) we don't
have
enough research yet to
say exactly in what way the autistic brain functions differently than
the non autistic
brain, but there is a huge number of current research projects going on
in this area.
Eigsti, I. & Shapiro, T. (2003). Mental Retardation
&
Developmental Disabilities
Research Reviews. Vol 9(3), 205-215.
~~
Trying to figure out
the difference between autism, Asperger's syndrome and atypical autism?
So is the medical and psychological community. Traditionally, children
with relatively normal language development, but severely maladaptive
social skills have carried the label of Asperger's syndrome. Autism has
been reserved for children who exhibit BOTH social and language
deficits. However, that view is changing. Leekam, S., et. al. (2000)
Autism, vol 4(1) 11-28. AND Volkmar, F. et. al, (2000) American Journal
of Psychiatry, Vol 157(2) 262-267.
~~
More research on
the relationship between serotonin levels and Pervasive Developmental
Disorder (PDD). PDD includes persons with autism, Asperger's syndrome
and PDD - not otherwise specified. Researchers in the Netherlands have
compared platelet serotonin levels in children with PDD, mental
retardation, and normal control children. They found platelet serotonin
levels were much higher in children with PDD. The children with non-PDD
mental retardation did not show this condition, which is referred to as
"hyperserotonemia" (isn't that a great term). It's exciting to watch
science get closer and closer to a way of earlier diagnosis of PDD.
Mulder, E. et al (2004). Journal of the American Academy of Child
&
Adolescent Psychiatry. Vol 43(4), 491-499.
~~
New research and
discussion has emerged linking autism to serotonin levels and the
cerebellum. Two separate groups of researchers - one in California and
the other in Pisa, Italy have found the serotonin system to malfunction
in the brains of autistic individuals. The problem is located in the
cerebellum and results in an inability to coordinate the functions of
cognition and emotion. 1. Marazziti, D. (2002). Psychiatry, Vol 52(2),
143. 2. Pierce, K & Courchesne, E. (2002). Biological
Psychiatry,
Vol 52(2), 143.
~~
Texas Tech University
has also released new research on autism. They found significant
deficits in the prefrontal areas of the brain responsible for word
identification and language formation skills. When compared to "normal"
brains, the autistic brain shows serious hypoperfusion. Wilcox, J.
et.al. (2002). Neuropsychobiology, Vo 46(1), 13-16.
~~
St. George's Hospital in London is releasing
new research on the biochemical differences found in persons with
Asperger's Syndrome (AS). According to their research, persons with AS
show significant increase in choline, creatine and N-acetylaspartate in
the PreFrontal lobe which is associated with obsessive behavior and
problems in social function. Murphy, D. et al. (2002). Archives of
General Psychiatry, Vol 59(10), 885-892.
~~
Dr James Mulick, Ohio State University,
reported on a very impressive study they've conducted with young
autistic children using Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI).
After full-time EIBI for 3 years, nearly all the children in their
study went from moderate mental retardation to at least an average IQ
and most saw a very significant loss of autistic symptoms.
~~
Using fMRI techniques,
Yale University has found an interesting brain abnormality in persons
with autism and autism spectrum disorder. In most brains (yours and
mine) we use one area to discriminate or identify objects and a
different area to identify faces. In the brains of persons with autism,
they use only the first region (inferior Temporal gyri) to identify
both objects and faces. Schultz, et.al. (2000). Archives of General
Psychiatry, vol 57(4), 331-340.
Asperger's
Disorder or Autism? The debate on how
to separate these disorders continues. And research continues to show
the line is fuzzy. In a current study, they tracked pre-school (age
4-6) children through their early elementary years to see which group
improved more, those diagnosed with Asperger's or those diagnosed with
autism. The children with Asperger's syndrome developed better social
skills with age and showed fewer stereotypic autistic symptoms.
However, if the autistic children developed verbal fluency, they were
quite difficult to separate from the children with Asperger's by the
time they reached middle elementary grades. Szatmari, P. et al. 2000.
Am. Journal of Psychiatry. Vol 157(12) 1980-1987 .
~~
Emory University has
linked abnormal oxytocin and vasopressin neurotransmitter levels with
several behaviors and features of autism. (oxytocin is the
neurotransmitter mentioned in this newsletter earlier this year as
being associated with monogamy and parent-child bonding). This study is
pointing to faulty genes and the expression of peptides for the
abnormal levels.
~~
Many children with
late-onset autism are actually experiencing epileptic-like brain
activity in their sleep. The research project, started about 2 years
ago, has found that autism may in fact be related to epilepsy. The
children in the study were found to be having small seizure activity in
the temporal region of their brains during sleep. This previously
undetected activity is thought to be interfering with the brain's
natural process of pruning out unused dendrites during sleep.
Apparently, dendrites, or pathways, that should have been removed,
remain, because the brain mistakenly believes they are still in use.
The study is being conducted at research park at the University of
Utah.
BRAIN
REGIONS/FUNCTION
~~
Regular exercise improves cognitive function,
improves
blood flow to the prefrontal cortex, improves attention and reduces
depression. Exercise can also undo much of the damage done to
the
hippocampus by cortisol as a result of chronic stress. Bruce
McEwen,PhD. Rockefeller University. "Of Molecules and Mind:Integrating
the psychology and biology of stress and adaptation. Address
presented at the APA convention, August 18, 2007, San Francisco.
~~
If you are a person who uses both your left and
right
hand for various tasks (an attribute called mixed-handedness) you
probably have a brain whose left and right hemispheres are more
strongly connected than someone who has a strong hand preference. This
can give you some bonuses other than just the convenience of having 2
hands to use! Researchers are finding that mixed-handed people have
stronger episodic memory systems (the ability to remember personal life
events, like your 2nd grade school year) and are able to remember
earlier childhood experiences. Episodic memory uses both left and right
hemispheres and develops around age 4 with the corpus callosum
connecting the two sides. A strong corpus callosum also gives one the
ability to do some tasks with either hand. Winerman, L. (2006)
Monitor on Psychology, Vol 37(6), 18 - 19.
~~ Most of us have seen prenatal pictures of a fetus sucking
its thumb. If the fetus is sucking his or her right thumb, he or she is
most
certainly going to be right handed. If the fetus is sucking the left
thumb,
there's about a 66 % chance they will be left handed. So handedness
appears
determined before birth - especially for right handers.
Hepper, P. et al. (2005). Neuropsychologia, vol 43(3), 313-315.
~~ Hearing one's own name in everyday situation is an attention
grabber as it causes a sudden rise in our self-awareness. Researchers
used
PET scans to see what happens in the brain when we hear our first name.
They
found a significant cerebral blood flow change in the right superior
temporal
sulcus and an even stronger change in the medial prefrontal cortex,
suggesting that
this region plays a big role in our processing of "self". Perrin, F. et
al. (2005).
Neuropsychologia, Vol 43(1), 12-19.
~~ Cognitive psychologists, neuroscientists and muscians will
be teaming up this weekend for a rather unique research project out of
McGill
University (Montreal). They will be measuring a host of physiological
and
neurological responses at the Boston Symphony. They will measure
responses
from the conductor, musicians and audience members as well as audience
members at a taped viewing. Researchers seek to find the differences in
the way we respond to music, both as performers and listeners and as
live versus recorded. You can watch for the results here in this
newsletter or
at: http://www.mcgill.ca
~~
Neurotrophins are a group of growth factors
responsible
for neuron growth and development. Some researchers are
linking 3
of them, NGF, BDNF and NT-3 with the development of
schizophrenia. If dysfunctional, these 3 could play a crucial
role in the neurodevelopmental problems that lead to
schizophrenia. Shoval, F. & Weizman, A.
(2005).
European Neuropsychopharmacology, Vol 15(3), 319-329.
~~ If you are watching a classroom demonstration or a video, your brain
is receiving information from more than one sense or modality (your
eyes, your ears, etc.). Each of these sensory signals is
processed in a separate region of the cortex (a unimodal area) and
then, because they come from the same place and time, are integrated in
a multisensory brain region (a heteromodal region). Neuroimaging
studies are showing that this process is actually a 2-way
street.
Not only do the unimodal areas affect the heteromodal regions, but the
interactions in the heteromodal areas can affect the specific unimodal
regions as well. This new view complicates our traditional
views
of multisensory integration in the brain. Macaluso, E. &
Driver, J.
(2005). Trends in Neurosciences, Vol. 28(5), 264-271.
~~ The brain uses separate cortex regions to interpret both the syntax
and semantics of music. This discovery is showing a large
overlap
between music and language in the human brain. When listening
to
music, we process its syntax with the inferior frontolateral cortex,
ventrolateral premotor cortex and the superior temporal gyrus- the same
regions we use to process linguistic syntax. We process
musical
semantics with the posterior temporal regions which also overlaps with
our interpretation of language. Koelsch, S. (2005).
Current
Opinion in Neurobiology, Vol. 15(2), 207-212.
~~ For
those of you who
collect research on gender differences in the brain, here's another
study for your collection. German researchers used a fMRI to
image
male and female brains while they looked at fear-inducing pictures.
While the self-reports of "fear" where stronger from the women, the
brain's activation or involvement (activation of the bilateral amygdala
and the left fusiform gyrus) was greater in men. The researchers
theorize that men's brains are wired to pay more attention to
aggression cues in their environment. Schienle, A. et al.
(2005).
Neuroreport: For Rapid Communication of Neuroscience
Research.
Vol
16(3), 277-280.
~~ While
educators may label
students as “visual learner”, “auditory learner” etc., in reality many
brain regions process information in “modality-neutral” fashion.
Researchers at the University of Iowa used PET scans to watch brains of
people having to name pictures and sounds of objects. If
someone
shows you a picture of a rooster and asks you to name it, or if they
play the sound of a rooster crowing and have you name it, you will use
the exact same left brain region for both tasks (inferotemporal). You
do separate the naming task into different regions of this area for
inanimate versus animate objects, but not for auditory or visual input
modes. Tranel, D. et al (2005). Journal of
Cognitive
Neuroscience, Vol 17(8), 1293-1305.
~~ Neuroscience
has shed a lot of light on the brain processing of bilingual
speakers. For the most part a bilingual speaker will use the
same
neural pathways for both languages. The only time you will see
different brain regions involved is if the second language was acquired
later in life, or the speaker struggles with mastery of the second
language or if there has been very limited exposure to the second
language. Perani, D. & Abutalebi, J.
(2005). Current
Opinion in Neurobiology, Vol 15(2), 202-206.
~~ Those
familiar with conformity studies (I summarize the hallmark Soloman Asch
study in my new book) know that when a person finds themselves the lone
thinker in a group, they usually will change their opinion and conform
to the group even if they are confident in their view. Emory
University is using fMRI scans to find the brain regions involved with
conformity and independent thinking. When someone
“conforms” in a group, regions of the occipital-parietal network are
activated in their brain. When a person remains “independent”
of
the group, the amygdala and caudate systems are activated.
Berns,
G. et al. (2005). Biological Psychiatry, Vol 58(3), 245-253.
~~
Head trauma or brain damage to the frontal
lobes does
not necessarily guarantee memory problems. While researchers
and
neurologists have long associated the frontal lobes with short term
memory function, it appears that there are many subdivisions to the
frontal lobe region, and each area may or may not be involved with a
different memory function. So while we can continue to expect
short term memory impairment with frontal lobe injury, it is possible
for that not to occur. Stuss, D. & Alexander, M.
(2005). Current Direction in Psychological Science, Vol
14(2),
84-88.
~~
Ever struggle to determine whether something is
a true
statement or a deception? If you listen with your left ear,
you
may do a better job in making the determination. Apparently
deception detection is easiest and most accurate when processed through
the right brain hemisphere with information coming in via the left
ear. Malcolm, S. & Keenan, J. (2005).
Laterality:
Asymmetries of Body, Brain & Cognition, Vol 10(2), 103-110.
~~ Use hand gestures when you lecture. Research supports more
emotional involvement on the part of the students to a lecture with
hand gestures and more cognitive understanding of the material as well.
However, only the right hemisphere apparently gains more "learning"
from hand gestures. If the right hemisphere is otherwise
engaged
during listening, the gestures make no difference.
Jaspers-Fayer,
et al (2005). Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain &
Cognition,
Vol 10(2), 183-191.
~~ A couple of issues back, I mentioned some of the earlier research on
mirror neurons, primarily in monkeys. The research continues
it's
hot track - now more often in humans. Italian researchers use fMRI
scans to show that when a person listens to another person explain an
action they were about to do (such as put together parts or walk across
the room) the neurons in the listener's brain that are responsible for
those exact muscle movements are activated. Tettamanti, M. et
al
(2005). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol 17(2), 273-281.
~~ As
many of us suspected, physical exercise, does indeed make the brain
stronger. In his presentation at the recent APA convention in
Washington DC, Tim Schallert, a researcher in Texas summarized all the
recent research that shows regular physical activity can reduce your
chances of getting Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and even
stroke. Schallert's own research is looking at how and why
this
happens. Using rats, the researchers find that exercise
prevents
the
brain's dopamine neurons from degenerating. This normal aging
degeneration of dopamine neurons is what is responsible for so many of
these aging diseases. Schallert, T. (2005). Journal of
Neuroscience,
Vol 21(12), 4427-4435.
~~
Mirror neurons. Since their discovery
was revealed
in
the early 1990's, they have taken the neurology and psychology world by
storm! These neurons are apparently responsible for
our
human ability to imitate and empathize. With their discovery
we
now can begin to understand how watching a football game excites us
almost as much as playing the game. Or how watching your child sled
gives us similar emotions to sledding ourselves.The research, of
course, has great implications for educators. The current
issue
of APA's Monitor summarizes the major areas of research on the
implications for mirror neurons. I'll summarize each of their articles
for this issue's Hot Topics:
1. The
first article summarized the discovery and research on mirror neurons
done in the late 1980s by Giacomo Rizolatti at the University of
Parma. They were first discovered in monkeys when researchers
noticed that the brain responses in a particular area of the brain that
are active when monkeys reach for a peanut were also active when
monkeys simply watched a researcher pick up a peanut. Further
research showed that many of the same neurons that activate for a
particular task are just as active when we simply watch someone else do
the same activity. Eureka - our first major insight into
empathy,
mimicry and learning. Winerman, L. (2005) Monitor
on
Psychology (APA), Vol 35(5) pg. 48-50.
2. The
second
article in this issue deals with one of the first big educational
arenas to run with this research on mirror neurons, and that is the
field of autism. Could a faulty mirror neuron system be the
major
cause of autism? It made sense that the system that allows us
to
learn through mimicry and empathy, both major factors of autism, may be
responsible for the disability. There are many researchers
and
theorist working on this topic. Brain imaging studies are
showing
that autistic people's mirror system is different than others, but
there are still issues to be addressed such as repetitive movements and
self-injury. Dingfelder, S. (2005) Monitor on
Psychology
(APA), Vol 35(5). pg 52-53.
3. The
third and final article on mirror neurons in this issue deals with
their relationship to language development and other issues in human
evolution. In particular, theorist are looking at the
relationship between mirror neurons and language development.
Several researchers theorize that it may have been these mirror neurons
that made language and social communication possible in our earliest
ancestors, and that there is a strong relationship in the brain between
manual dexterity and language and social world - that we may have first
communicated with hand movements, then spoken language. Azar, B. (2005)
Monitor on Psychology (APA), Vol 35(5) pg 54 - 56.
~~ Most
people are fairly
comfortable doing simple arithmetic
(add / subtract) problems. However, once math problems become
more complex, many people start to complain about the difficulty. As
researchers at Harvard have found, it may be because complex problems
involve a great deal more brain regions. A functional MRI
shows
that we use 3 brain areas for simple addition or subtraction (Right
inferior parietal lobule, Left precuneus, and Left superior parietal
gyrus) . However when faced with a complex math problem,
another
more involved network is called upon to join in. Now we use a network
involving those original 3 regions PLUS the left inferior intraparietal
sulcus, the left inferior frontal gyrus and the bilateral
cingulate. So complex math problems really do involve a great
deal more brain power and brain regions. Kong, J. et al (2005).
Cognitive Brain Research, Vol22(3), 397-405.
~~ When
it comes to spatial
competence, children's brains
see striking developmental growth between the ages of 18 and 24 months.
Their ability to mentally "view" multiple locations, see relations
among objects and mentally recall a location long after being there,
all come into maturity during this time period. All this is
primarily due to major developmental maturation in the brain's
hippocampus at this age. Sluzenski, J. et al. (2004). Journal
of
Cognitive Neuroscience. Vol 16(8), 1443-1451.
~~ When
we are in a noisy room or environment, we use a speaker's body language
to assist us in understanding what is being said. Lip reading and hand
gestures both give us clues to speech comprehension. Researchers in
Australia are using fMRI imaging to find how these cues arehandled by
the brain. While the left hemisphere processes both of
thesenon-verbal aids, the regions do differ. Lip reading is
handled in the area called the left posterior superior temporal sulcus
whereas hand gestures are interpreted by the intraparietal
region. Obviously one's dependence on one of these non-verbal
aids would vary from person to person. Thompson, J. et al.
(2004). Cognitive Brain Research, Vol 21(3), 412-417.
~~ Most
of us are intrigued by the Deja Vu experience - the
feeling you get that you have been in a situation or place previously
when in fact you know it to be novel. Alan Brown at SMU in
Dallas
shares how current neuro-research has presented 3 possible theories for
this interesting mental phenomenon. 1) Identical messages are
processed by two separate regions of the brain and get separated
briefly due to a change in neural transmission speed. 2) One
perceptual experience is briefly separated into two due to some
internal distraction. 3) Our implicit familiarity
is
mistakenly activated without the normally present conscious
recollection. Brown, A. (2004). Current Directions
in
Psychological Science, Vol 13(6), 256-259.
~~ Where
is our internal
clock? We may be tempted to think that our ability
to judge
brief time intervals is a sophisticated process delegated to our
cortex. But studies show that estimated time passage is information
that is available to both hemispheres even in people with a severed
corpus callosum which connects the two hemispheres. This
means
that our internal clock is probably subcortical and that those time
estimates can easily be transferred to either hemisphere.
Marzi,
C. (2004). Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Vol 8(1),
1-3.
~~ Brain
differences between the genders? While it makes for great
dinner
discussion, research continues to find more brain differences
attributed to handedness than to gender. Researchers in Turkey have
used MRI scans to measure volumes of cerebral ventricles. The lateral
ventricle in the left hemisphere has a greater volume for left
handers. The lateral ventricle in the right hemisphere has a
greater volume in the brains of right handed people. In
general,
left handed people have reduced volume in all brain
ventricles.
Ventricle volume differences between male and female brains?
These researchers found none. Erdogan, A. et al.
(2004). Vol. 114, (1), 67-73.
~~ For
the most part, we process speech in the auditory area of our left
temporal lobe and process music in the auditory area of our right
temporal lobe. While most of us are pretty determined to keep
speech and informational sound processing isolated to the left auditory
cortex region, we are not so stubborn about music processing.
Research has shown that we occasionally will also process music on the
left side too - it just depends on how familiar the tune is.
Tervaniemi, M. & Hugdahl, K. (2003). Brain Research
Reviews,
Vol 42(3), 231-246.
~~
Not only is the
amygdala of the brain responsible for many of our emotions, it also is
what allows us to interpret emotions in others by looking at their
facial expressions. According to a study out of Iowa, people with
damage in the amygdala region (paired also with damage to the front of
the temporal lobe) can't "read" the emotion of a person's face.
Schmolck, H & Squire, L. 2001. Neuropsychology, vol. 15(1), 30
-
38.
~~
Autobiographical
memory or "episodic" memory has long been considered strongest and
easiest recalled when attached to emotion. Researchers in Germany were
trying to find out if these "affect-laden" memories used different
neural networks and if there was a difference between happy or sad
memories in terms of which brain areas were involved in the retrieval.
While there were some differences in other brain regions, the area
known as the orbitofrontal cortex was common to both types of
affect-laden information processing. Happy memories involved more of
the hippocampus regions, while sad memories used regions of the right
lateral temporal area as well as the left cerebellum. Markowitsch, H.
et al. (2003). Cortex. Vol. 39(4-5), 643-665.
~~
We've long known
that people who are not touched and held much as very young infants can
have a host of problems as teens and adults, but the biology behind it
has been vague. Now researchers in Brazil are finding physical brain
changes in handled vs non-handled infants. Their study involved other
mammals, but found that infants handled during the first week had a
very significant reduction or pruning of cells in a region known as the
Locus Coeruleus (LC). This LC area is the region responsible for
attention, some memory and sleep/wake cycles. Problems in this region
have been linked to both attention deficit and hyperactivity. In their
study, the changes in the LC remained very different in the "held and
touched" infants even for months afterward indicating a long term
effect of early touching of infants versus neglect. Lucion, A. (2003).
Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol 177(5), 894-903.
~~
In a recent newsletter
edition I mentioned a study about how most of us, being right handed,
concentrate dopamine more in the right hemisphere of our brains (we
spin away from that side). We also mis-judge the midline of our bodies
slightly to the left due to that as well. If you don't have this
"normal" one-sided distribution of dopamine it can cause an array of
schizophrenia related problems. Researchers in Switzerland have found
another way to check for this. Fold your arms. Undo them and now fold
your hands. Did you match? Left arm on top, left thumb on top? Or right
arm on top, right thumb on top? Most people do. The researchers found
that in people that have incongruous preferences, it was an indication
of an irregular dopamine distribution which could lead to some
personality difficulties. Mohr, C. et al. (2003). Journal of Clinical
& Experimental Neuropsychology, Vol 25(7), 1000-1010.
~~
An article in
the Journal, "Cortex" suggests that current research may indicate many
other regions of the brain are involved in working memory and executive
function besides the pre-frontal cortex. For the last several years,
we've blamed poor working memory on that area exclusively. The article
shows research that may point to a more complex picture. While the
frontal cortex may be one of the biggest areas involved, working memory
may involve links between many brain regions which need further study.
Andres, Pilar. (2003). Cortex, Vol 39(4-5), 871-895.
~~
If you've read much on the brain, you're
probably familiar with the region known as Broca's area and how it is
responsible for expressive language. However, you may not know that the
region is subdivided into distinct regions - BA44 and BA45. Researchers
in Bethesda, MD have found that area BA45 is activated by both speech
and signing with American Sign Language. BA 44 is responsible for the
actual articulation of muscles for verbal speech. BA45 then is
apparently responsible for the basic part of language use regardless of
the modality of expression. Horwitz, B. et al. (2003).
Neuropsychologia. Vol 41(14), 1868-1876.
~~
Stand up, close
your eyes, extend your arms out. Now turn in a circle. Which way did
you turn? Chances are if you are right-handed you turned left and vice
versa. Researchers in Switzerland noticed that turning behavior in
animals correlated with hemispheric dopamine asymmetries (DA). Animals
tend to turn toward the side with less DA. Apparently handedness in
humans is similar, and may help explain the strong right handed
preference in humans. (on a side note, other studies have shown that
pre-natal stress can cause changes in DA which can change directional
bias in animals and reduce the offspring's ability to handle stress).
Mohr, C. et al. (2003). Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol 117(6), 1448 -
1452.
~~
Researchers in
London have released research which they suggest shows that there are
NO regions of the cortex specifically dedicated to "word form
processing" - either visual or auditory. Their research involved
looking at the regions of the cortex activated with auditory word
repetition, reading, picture naming, and environmental sound naming.
While predictable areas were activated (Broca's Wernicke's, and other
regions) no areas were unique to the processing of word forms. Ahhh,
the plot thickens..... Price, C.J. et al (2003). Brain &
Language,
Vol 86(2), 272-286.
~~
Math giftedness
may be the result of better left - right hemisphere communication in
the brain. A study of middle school students was undertaken as a join
US - Australian research project. The "average" math middle schoolers
used the expected left hemisphere for processing "parts" and the right
hemisphere for processing "wholes" in analyzing and reasoning. But
math-gifted middle schoolers did not show this difference. These
students used both hemispheres equally for processing both "parts" and
"wholes." The study also went on to elaborate on the gender difference
in math giftedness. Testosterone acts prenatally in the development of
the right hemisphere leading to math giftedness being found 13 times
more often in males. Singh & O'Boyle (2004)Neuropsychology,
Vol.
18(2), 371-377.
~~
Certain reading
problems have often been blamed on dysfunction in the right occipital
lobe which is designed for visual priming - or implicit memory of past
visual experience with words (sight words). However a study at UC Davis
indicates that in fact both hemispheres may be responsible. What they
found is that problems with word-fragment completion involves both
hemispheres whereas word stem completion is fairly isolated to the
right occipital lobe. Kroll, N et al. (2003). Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, Vol 15(60< 833- 842.
~~
Smart people may
have more efficient brains. An Austrian study used PET scans to watch
people "think." Persons with a higher IQ actually used less area of
their cortex when thinking through a problem and had brains that were
more focused, than persons with lower IQs. The researchers also saw
differences between genders. Females showed greater efficiency on
verbal tasks and males on tasks involving figures. Neubauer, A. et al.
(2002). Intelligence. Vol 30(6), 515-536.
~~
I have covered lots of research in the past
two years regarding the pre-frontal cortex. The region is responsible
for so many things including decision making and reward processing. Now
York University in Toronto has linked it to one more process - humor.
Whether you are processing a pun or a complex semantic joke, you are
involving the prefrontal cortex. So now we have one more reason to use
humor in the classroom - it forces brain activity up to the higher
regions of the brain. Goel, V & Dolan, R. (2001). Nature
Neuroscience, vol 4(3), 237-238.
~~
Many of us were excited a few years ago when
researchers discovered that it may indeed be possible to regenerate
nerve cells in the brain. The research shows that the hippocampus, the
area responsible for forming memories, is capable of growing new
neurons later in life. Now a study out of Princeton is showing what we
can do to increase the likelihood of this growth occurring in our
brains. According to this study, new nerve cell growth is started by
hormones out of the ovaries and adrenal glands. The new cells will
either grow or die depending on the enrichment of our environment,
learning and reduction of stress. Gould, E., et. al. 2000. Biological
Psychiatry, vol. 48(9), 715-720.
~~
I was intrigued by a study out of Germany
which noted that often people with right hemisphere brain damage cannot
mark the center of a horizontal line yet have no problems marking the
center of a square. They used MRI to discover that line judgement
activates only the right cortex (parietal region) while finding the
center of a square actives the lingual gyrus in both brain hemispheres.
Their conclusion: the more 'object-like' gestalt you can make a visual
stimulus, the greater the brain regions responsible for interpretation.
The morale of the story: Use manipulatives and diagrams whenever
possible for simple abstract concepts and to involve more of the brain.
Fink, G. et al. 2000 Neuropsychologia, Vol. 38(13), 1741-1748.
~~
The University of Calf. medical school used
PET scans to examine brain regions of people while speaking. They
looked at the brain while they (1)made nonsense syllables, (2)recited
the months of the year, and (3)reciting a briefly memorized prose
passage. While both the "mindless" recitation of the months and the
prose passage used Wernicke's area (the top back part of the temporal
lobe) ONLY the prose showed activity in Broca's area. The conclusion:
rote memorized verbal tasks require little thought or sophisticated
cortical activity (e.g.: "do you want fries with that?). Bookheimer,
S., et al. 2000. Neurology, Vol 55(8), 1151-1157.
~~
The University of Colorado sheds some light
on the relationship between the hippocampus and the neocortex in
learning. Both areas are involved in learning new tasks. The neocortex
processes slower, overlaps categories and attempts to find the patterns
and structure of the material. The hippocampus processes faster, uses
completely separate representations to code facts and details of
specific events and is less prone to interference. In other words, the
hippocampus memorizes, the neocortex learns. O'Reilly, R. &
Rudy,
J. 2000. Hippocampus, Vol 10(4), 389-397.
~~
A study out of Duke
University shows that, if at all possible, our brain will solve tasks
by processing information in only one hemisphere. We see this on simple
problem solving tasks. However, as the tasks get more complex, the
brain will always choose to process by coordinating information between
the two hemispheres. I suppose if we want to give our brains a good
well-balanced work-out, we need to do complex tasks once in a while.
Weissman and Banich (2000). Neuropsychology, vol 14(1), 41-59.
~~
Planning involves
maintaining one main goal while working on subgoals for that main goal.
This is apparently one of the unique human brain functions. The
National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland has published
findings which show that that particular task is performed in the most
anterior part of the frontal lobes called the fronto- polar prefrontal
cortex. Koechlin et. al, Nature 1999, vol 399(6732) 148-151.
~~
MRI, PET SPECT scans all
support major mental disabilities result from adnormalities in the
frontal lobes. Major depression and schizophrenia are associated with
problems in the left frontal lobe. Impulsiveness and mania in the right
frontal lobe. Obsessive-compulsive behaviors tend to result from
problems in the orbital frontal lobes. Joseph. Psychiatry:
Interpersonal & Biological Processes, 1999, v 62, 2, 138-172.
DEPRESSION
~~ Children who struggle academically in
the
first grade
are significantly more prone to depression and other mental health
problems during middle school years. This according to researchers
who tested 1st graders for basic academic skills and then tracked them
through junior high. The effect was greatest for black female students.
Mental health problems can be lessened however by
teaching young children how to deal with the stress and anxiety
associated with their academic struggles. Herman, K. et al (2008).
Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol 55(3), 400 - 410.
~~
College counseling centers may want to join
others
in offering a "National Depression Screening Day". Results from last
year's screening on Oct 11th showed a large increase in the number of
students who came to counseling centers for screening and those who
were detected showed greater improvement with treatment. The day also
was effective with attracting more males for depression screening than
normal. Chamberlin, J. (2007). Monitor on Psychology, Vol 38(9), 68
~~
A substantial number of adolescents with
epilepsy and
seizures have clinical depression as well, so says the Journal of
Epilepsy & Behavior. The prevalence of depression
among these
teens has not been widely known and many are not being
treated.
Researcher Benjamin Hankin writes on how the role of stressors in a
young person's life interact with genetic, biological, cognitive and
interpersonal factors to predict depression. Hankin, B. (2006).
Epilepsy & Behavior, Vol .8(1), 102-114.
~~
Depression affects about 2% of pre-adolescent
children
and about 5% of adolescents. It's concerning because it is
often
associated with many at-risk behaviors, poor relationships and academic
problems plus it tends to pre-dispose adolescents to depression as
adults. Schools have attempted to lessen the problem with 2 types of
programs - universal prevention programs addressed to the student body
at-large and selective interventions specifically targeted to students
at risk for depression. A project designed to evaluate the
effectiveness of all these programs has found that the targeted
programs are more effective than universal programs and that programs
which viewed themselves more as "treatments" as opposed to
"preventions" were also most effective. The length of the
treatment or length of follow-up did not seem to cause a difference in
effectiveness between programs. Horowitz, J. & Garber, J.
(2006). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychiatry, Vol.
74(3), 401-415.
~~
Most of us know that January is one of the peak
months
for Seasonal Affective Depression (SAD) due to light
shortage.
Currently, the most effective treatment for SAD seems to be spending 30
minutes in front of a 10,000 lux diffused white fluorescent light in
the morning. But some new research is showing that this
"light
therapy" may actually be a very effective treatment for other types of
depression as well. In fact some research indicates it may be
as
effective as drug therapy in many people. Golden, R. et al
(2005). American Journal of Psyciatry, Vol 162(4), 656-662.
~~
Depressed people have a
smaller left side to their hippocampus, according to researchers in
West Haven, Connecticut. A study show a 20% size difference in this
region of the brain whose main job is memory. The smaller size is
thought to be due to the increase in glucocorticoids which come with
depression. Glucorticoids can damage the hippocampus. Bremner, et.al.
American Journal of Psychiatry, 2000. vol. 157(1), 115-117.
~~
The recreational
drug Ecstasy is linked to long term reduction in brain serotonin levels
leading to depression and Obsessive -Compulsive Disorder. But
researchers in Germany find that the drug doesn't actually deplete the
brain's serotonin supply but rather changes the physical structure of
the neurons in the brains so that they are unable to receive the
serotonin. Quednow,B. et al. (2004). Neuro- psychopharmacology,
Vol29(5), 982-990.
~~
Loneliness can
make you sick. So say researchers in London. A study released this
summer shows that lonely people have difficulty with blood pressure,
increased natural killer cells produced under stress and higher
cortisol levels in the brain in the first half hour after waking. All
of these are associated with things that can influence your health.
Make it a point to help children and adults who may feel socially
isolated and alone. Steptoe, A. et al. (2004). Psychoneuroendocriology.
Vol 29(5), 593-611.
~~
If you are
working with someone with bi-polar disorder, or just have an interest
in it, you may want to look at some research out of the University of
Texas Medical Branch regarding new treatments. The research is showing
some promise in expanding the treatment options for acute mania,
depression and bipolar disorder. The research looks at the traditional
clozapine, olanzapine, and risperidone as well as some newer "atypical"
treatments such as quetiapine, ziprasidone, and aripiprazole.
Hirschfeld, R. (2003). Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. Vol 64(suppl18),
15-21.
~~
Yale University is
looking at the chemical and biological workings of antidepressant
medications. Depression has long been known to cause structural
impairments to the cells in the hippocampus of the brain.
Antidepressants have been found to undue much of this damage and
actually help stimulate cell growth in the region. According to a new
study out of Yale's School of Medicine, these drugs work by
manipulating 2 of the body's own chemicals - cyclic AMP which turns on
genes responsible for making cell chemicals, and BDNF a common
neurotrophin responsible for cell growth and the development of
dendrites. D"Sa, C. & Duman, R. (2002). Bipolar Disorders, Vol
4(3), 183-194.
~~
Two studies out of the University of Texas
found two significant issues which correlate to depression in
adolescent girls. The first study showed that body-image
dissatisfaction such as dieting, pressure to be thin and bulimia can
all predict depression in adolescent girls. The other study shows that
an early age for menarche (sooner than 11.6 years) also can predict
depression in adolescent girls. Stice, E. & Bearman, S. 2001.
Develop- mental Psychology, Vol. 37(5), 597-607. Stice, E. et al. 2001.
Developmental Psychology, Vol 37(5), 608-619.
~~
Left-handed people are over-represented in the
depressed population. This is particularly true with males. One group
of researchers is suspecting this may be due to the difference in
hormone levels in the brain between left and right handed men. Elias,
L. et al. 2001. Brain & Cognition. Vol 46(1-2), 125-129.
~~
An interesting study out
of Manchester College shows that pregnant women who exhibit depression
in their last trimester (high cortisol, high norepinephrine, low
dopamine levels) gave birth to infants who also exhibit atypical
norepinephrine and dopamine levels. The infants born to depressed
mothers also showed inferior performance on infant tests for
orientation, reflex and excitability. Lundy, et. al. Infant Behavior
& Development, 1999, vol 22(1), 119-129.
~~
The brain area
responsible for circadian rhythms (suprachiasmatic nuclei) is analyzed
in a new study out of the University Catholique de Louvain in Belgium.
The study also describes the strong relationship between depression and
sleep disturbances, especially REM deprevation. Emilien, et.al. Irish
Journal of Psychological Medicine, 1999,vo16(1), 18-23.
~~
The University of
Helsinki has shown that depressed people exhibit not only cognitive
slowing but impairment in visual memory. In their study, verbal memory
was not as affected. Kalska, et. al. Applied Neuropsychology, 1999vol.
6(2), 96-107.
DIABETES
~~
The Erasmus University
Medical School in the Netherlands is showing a correlation between type
2 diabetes and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Apparently
persons with diabetes have double the risk of developing dementia.The
risk is especially high if they are insulin users. Ott, et.al.,
Neurology, 1999 Vol 53(9), 1937-1942.
DYSLEXIA
~~
Some children with dyslexia may find benefit in
using
colored overlays and glasses for reading. Researchers at the
University of Melbourne have found that this is due to "attentional
gating" problems that may occur in the primary visual cortex.
The
processing mechanism known as the visual magnocellular pathway is
designed to perform a sequential gating of visual information as it
comes into the visual cortex for ordering. Children with
impairments in this system may benefit from the use of colored
overlays. Vidyasagar, T. (2005). Perception. Vol 34(8),
903-911.
~~
Until recently, most researchers agreed that
dyslexia,
regardless of the person's language, originates from a dysfunction of
the left posterior temporal brain region. Some new research begins to
question that universal source. Dyslexia in the Chinese seems
to
come from a different region altogether (left middle frontal
gyrus). However most of the people looking at this issue
still
agree that regardless of your language, dyslexia results from an
inability to process the phonological features of your
language.
Ziegler, J. (2006). Brain and Language, Vol 98(3), 341-343.
~~ Carleton University in Ottawa has been looking at
dyslexia and the possibility that some dyslexia may stem from
inefficient inter-hemispheric communication, as has been suggested by
many researchers. They found however, no real difference between
children with and without dyslexia in their ability to communicate
efficiently between brain hemispheres. Instead they found
significant delays in word retrieval processing from long term
memory. Sotozaki, H. & Parlow, S. (2006). Brain and
Language,
Vol 98(1), 89-101.
~~
Researchers at the University of Colorado are
suggesting
that schools could better serve children with dyslexia, by adopting a
strength-based ecological approach to working with these students as
opposed to the current deficit-method of conceptualizing dyslexia.
Rather than viewing the condition as a weakness within the child, an
ecological approach considers the child along with the systems within
which he/she interacts when making assessments. Actions center on
identifying systems that impact the child's ability to be successful.
D'Amato, R et al (2005). Neuropsychology Review, Vol 15(2), 97-103. ~~
The pathology or physical cause of dyslexia continues to
be
debated. One of the suspected causes is being investigated by the
University of Louisville (KY). Using MRI brain images of dyslexic
people, this study found that persons with dyslexia have a
significantly smaller cerebral volume but no difference in cortical
thickness. They also found defects in the brain's minicolumns
which can affect information processing ability, especially since the
study found no difference in white / gray matter ratios. So
while
the physical thickness of the cortex remains the same, the volume is
less. Apparently the difference lies in the gyrification or
lay
out of the foldings. Casanova, M. et al. (2004). Journal of
Child
Neurology, Vol 19(4), 275-281.
~~
Yale University is using
neuroimaging to identify the area of dysfunction in dyslexia. It
appears to be the angular gyrus in the left hemisphere. This region
sits right behind Wernicke's area and is thought to be involved in
language-related visual input. Their study also shows compensatory
behaviors for the deficit to occur in the same general region in the
right hemisphere. Pugh, et. al. (2000). Psychological Science, vol.
11(1), 51-56.
~~ Benita Blachman at Syracuse
University and
his team, including Sally Shaywiitz at Yale released a study comparing
daily systematic reading tutoring with traditional school remedial
programs for struggling 2nd and 3rd graders. Poor readers were randomly
assigned to either their school's remedial reading help - Chapter 1 or
resource pull out - or to a treatment group which consisted of 50
minute one-on-one reading tutoring using a 5 skill lesson program based
on the current research of the reading process. They used the Woodcock
Reading Test to measure progress. Not only was the end of the year
testing very different between the two groups, but very significant
differences could be seen even a year later after all students had
returned to their home based school program. For example, measures of
"word reading" after only one month was 9.11 for the treatment group
and 7.66 for the control group. At the end of the year, the treatment
group's mean score was 26.14 compared to 18.44 for the control. And a
year later the treatment group's mean score was 33.05 compared to 26.78
for controls. The research is fairly strong on this topic now.
Systematic reading instruction needs to include: sound-symbol
associations, phoneme analysis, fluency building, oral reading
practice, spelling instruction. We need all the components, taught
explicitly and systematically. Blachman, B.et al. (2004). Journal of
Educational Psychology, Vol 96(3), 444-461.
~~
Another study
has been released supporting processing difficulties in the left
hemisphere in dyslexic children. A researcher used a finger tapping /
line orientation test on 3 groups of adolescents: good readers/poor
spellers (dysgraphia), poor readers/poor spellers (dyslexia) and good
readers/good spellers. When the children tapped their left-hand during
the spatial task, all groups performed similarly. But during the right
hand tapping (which would involve the left hemisphere) the 2 poor
spelling groups had much more interruption of tapping than the good
spellers. The dysgraphia and dyslexia groups did not differ from each
other in the results. The researcher concludes that these conditions
are the result of a left-hemisphere processing limitation which affects
much more than just written language. These children have problems
disembedding and converting spatial patterns (such as spelling
patterns) into a useable temporal form. Mather, D. (2003). Journal of
Learning Disabilities. Vol 36(4), 307-317.
~~
The University
of Texas is using MEG to shed light on dyslexia. When children without
any reading problems have to distinguish between similar spoken
syllables, the speech area in the left brain hemisphere work very hard,
with the same area on the right side doing very little. When children
with dyslexia do the same task, the corresponding area in the right
hemisphere actually worked harder than the left. Their research
supports the idea that children with dyslexia have a specific
neurological deficit in a very isolated brain area dealing with speech.
Dyslexia has more to do with sound than with sight. The researchers
also support the disuse of IQ in defining reading disabilities - but to
look instead at poor reading. And fortunately, with intense
intervention, brain patterns can be changed and reading can improve.
Breier et.al (2003). Neuropsychology, Vol17 (4), 610-621.
~~
In recent years
some researchers have hinted that dyslexia may have cerebellum origins.
This idea of blaming the cerebellum was shot down recently by a U.K.
research team. Using a variety of tests the researchers did find
significant motor control performance problems associated with children
with dyslexia but found no impairment in their ability to estimate time
- a central cerebellar function. They conclude that phonological and
reading problems are probably not caused by cerebellar dysfunction.
Ramus, F. et al. (2003). Journal of Child Psychology &
Psychiatry
& Allied Disceplines, Vol 44(5), 712-722.
~~
On the same topic of dyslexia, researchers in
Norway have found new brain physical differences associated with
dyslexia. Using magnetic resonance images, the researchers found that
brains of persons with dyslexia have smaller planum temporale areas
(posterior superior temporal regions). In addition to being involved in
a wide range of neuropsychiatric disorders, this area is sometimes
referred to as the brain region where "written and spoken language
meet" because the area is activated by both reading and listening.
Hugdahl, K. et al. (2003). Neuropsychologia, Vol 41(6), 666-675.
~~
New brain
research on dyslexia - a fMRI study by Sally Shaywitz at Yale (if you
follow dyslexia research, you are familiar with her team) shows that
children with dyslexia can move along two separate brain tracks as
adult readers: 1)"Persistently poor readers" (ppr) are those adults who
continue to have poor fluency and poor accuracy in their reading and 2)
"compensated readers (cr) who are very accurate readers but lack
fluency. The first group (ppr) use the same brain area for reading as
non- dyslexic readers but use the region differently and rely more on
memory based strategies than word analysis strategies. The compensated
readers (cr) rely primarily on a different region altogether and use
the "traditional" reading brain region very little. (the traditional
being the posterior brain region located in the left parietotemporal
and occipitotemporal regions). Shaywitz, S. (2003). Biological
Psychiatry. Vol 54(1), 25-33.
~~
Another study published
also by Yale University by Sally & Bennett Shaywitz, shows
dyslexia
to result from the inability to comprehend that words can be broken
down into smaller units. This dysfunction occurs in both written and
spoken language. This is the function of the angular gyrus mentioned in
the topic above. Shaywitz. (1999). Developmental Neuropsychology. Vol
16(3), 383-384.
~~
In a "chicken or
egg"debate, a study by Rush University in Chicago proposes that deep
dyslexia and it's corresponding damaged left hemisphere function
actually results from problems with the right hemisphere. The study
proposes that the problem arises because the right hemisphere involves
itself in the reading process, rather than the other way around.
Beeman, et.al. (2000), vol. 71(2), 299-309.
~~
National Institute of
Health, Bethesda Maryland is shedding more light on the biology of
dyslexia. They blame lower blood flow in the temporal and inferior
parietal regions of the brain as a problem in dyslexia. In addition,
they have found a reverse problem in a region known as the left angular
gyrus. Increased blood flow in this area improves reading skill in
non-dyslexia persons, but causes worse reading skills in people with
dyslexia. Rumsey, et.al., 1999. Brain & Language vol. 70(2),
187-204.
~~
The University of
Wurzberg conducted a study showing that early training in knowledge of
letters and sound structure of spoken language can reduce the risk of
dyslexia. Schneider, Roth, Ennemaser. J. of Ed Psych 2000 vol 92,(2)
284-295.
~~
Dartmouth medical school
is using MRI imaging to show that there is a structural difference in
the brains of people with dyslexia. In particular, they've found an
area of the perisylvian region (associated with language) called the
caudal infrasylvian surface (CIS) which is significantly larger in the
brains of persons with dyslexia. Green, et. al, (1999). Neurology. vol.
53(5), 974-981
~~
The Irlen lenses are
being tested using magnetoencephalography - the most current and
sophisticated brain imaging technique. Erlen lenses are often called
"ROSE-COLORED" lenses and have recently been used with varied success
for the treatment of some types of dyslexia. The good news: there
appears to be significant evidence that these colored filters do reduce
or eliminate the conflicting brain pathway firings in some children and
enable them to make sense out of what they are reading. The bad news:
they don't work for everyone with dyslexia, different colors work for
different kids (they need to be "fitted") and like everything - more
research needs to be done and funding is limited.
GANGS
~~
Another University of
Chicago study found the following as predictors of gang activity:
--young
age onset of
conduct disorder
--having
friends who
engage in agressive deliquency.
--family
income and
parental supervision.
Lahey,
et. al, (1999).
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. vol. 27(4). 261-276.
GENDER
DIFFERENCES
~~ While woman have been blaming all sorts
of cognitive
impairments on hormones and cycles, here's some research that may
have us re-thinking that old excuse. Research has long shown that
stress
and the resulting cortisol increase, causes problems in memory
retrieval. However, new research shows that .the gonadal steroids
produced during
a woman's luteal phase (the day after ovulation through the end of the
cycle)
negates the stress-effect on memory. So apparently only men and women
during the pre-ovulation stage of their cycle have stress-related
memory deficits.
Schoofs, D. & Wolf, O. (2009). Behavioral Neuroscience. Vol
123(3),
547-554.
~~ A new study investigated middle school
(grades 6 - 8)
student's perception of the social support they receive in all aspects
of
their lives (teachers, friends, parents). Using various measures,
researchers found significant gender differences. Girls perceive quite
a
bit more support from friends and classmates than boys do. In fact,
while
girls report that friends provide the most social support, boys report
that
they get less support from their friends than any other source. Since
there
is a strong relationship between student's perception of social support
and
student adjustment, schools may want to consider this new research in
planning support systems. Rueger, S. et al. (2008). School Psychology
Quarterly, Vol 23(4), 496-514.
~~ Despite rumors to the contrary, there
does not appear to be any
difference between the way male and female brains process words in
reading. Using over 200 subjects and MRI scans, researchers found no
difference in the
involvement or asymmetry of either Broca's and Wernicke's areas.
Chiarello, C. et al. (2009). Neuropsychology. Vol 23(2), Mar 2009,
210-222.
~~ If you still subscribe to the
stereotype that
boys are better at math, please note that the research doesn't support
it. Looking at standardized math scores from over 7 million children in
early elementary through high school, researchers at the University of
Wisconsin found no differences between the genders. Hyde, J. et al.
(2008). Science, Vol 321(5888), 494-495.
~~
Boys with higher brain serotonin levels as
children have
less risk of being aggressive adolescents. Researchers at
Queens
College in New York recently finished a longitudinal study where they
tracked boys with various disruptive disorders from their childhood
through adolescence. While not all boys with low serotonin
levels
became aggressive during adolescence, it was a contributing factor and
no boys with high serotonin levels in childhood displayed aggressive
behaviors during their adolescence. Halperin, J. et al,
(2006).
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent
Psychiatry,
Vol 56(7), 833-840.
~~
For those of you collecting gender differences
in the
brain, you may want to read a new study out of Tulane University in New
Orleans. Researchers there are studying brain gender
differences
for auditory processing. The Perisylvian region of the brain
is
heavily involved in processing the information we hear. There
are
4 subunits of this region and the study found significant volume
differences in 2 of these areas in female brains. They found
organizational differences as well. So women and men do listen
differently. (I know many of you are thinking, "for THIS we
need
research?") Knaus, T. et al (2004). Neuropsychology, Vol
18(4),
738-747.
~~
The Journal of Youth and
Adolescence released a study showing female adolescents involved in
athletics were much less likely to engage in sexual risk-taking
behaviors than non-athletes. The study found 50% of adolescents not in
athletics were sexually active, compared to 21% of adolescents in
sports activities. Savage & Holcomb (1999). Journal of Youth
and
Adolescence. vol. 28(5), 595-602.
~~
Men and women
think differently. (Did you need research to tell you that?) In case
you do need the research, apparently researcher in Georgia used EEGs to
record brain activities while male and female students attempted to
mentally rotate both 2 and 3 dimensional models. In the simpler 2
dimensional models, men used their left parietal lobe for the most part
while women used their right parietal lobe primarily. On the more
complex 3-D models, both men and woman used their right parietal area
the most. While men and women performed equally well on the 2-D models,
the men performed better on rotating and manipulating the 3-D models.
Roberts, J. & Bell, M. (2003). International Journal of
Psychophysiology. Vol 50(3), 235-246.
~~
You may not need
me to tell you that women are better at locating lost objects than men.
Traditionally, female brains have done better on tests for spatial
location memory. Researchers in Saskatchewan have looked at the issue
in more detail by adding a more complex "dynamic" component to the
memory test. And again, in dynamic, real world situations, the female
brain has an advantage for spatial location memory. Tottenham, L. et
al. 2003. Brain & Cognition. Vol 53(2), 381-383.
~~
A baby's cry. A
laughing infant. Your response to both of these events is related to 2
factors - your gender and your parenting experience (or lack of).
Researchers at the University of Basel used fMRI scans to view brain
reaction to infant crying and laughing. They compared male and female
brains and parent / non parent brains. Their findings: a region called
the anterior cingulate cortex was involved in a women's brain for both
infant laughing and crying in both parent and non parent women. Not so
for men. However, men and women's brains showed increased amygdala /
limbic region activity based on parenting experience. Those who are
parents increased this activity to the sound of an infant's cry. Those
who have never been parents increased the activity to the sound of the
laugh. Apparently "maternal behavior" is not limited to Mom. Seifritz,
E. et al. (2003). Biological Psychiatry, Vol 54(12), 1367-1375.
~~
: Another gender
difference in the brain was studied in Amsterdam. A half male, half
female group was shown slides of cartoon faces expressing a wide range
of emotions. The participants had to rate the expressions as either
positive or negative. Some slides were shown only to the right eye
(processed in the left brain hemisphere) and some to the left eye
(processed in the right hemisphere). The results: women rated faces
more positively overall. And woman gave more positive emotion votes to
the neutral faces when viewed through their right eye. Men appeared to
have no difference between hemispheres on their emotional
interpretation. Van Strien, J. & Van Beek. 2000. Brain
&
Cognition. Vol 44(3), 645-652.
~~
Men and women think differently! So says the
Univ. of California school of medicine. They studied working memory
(what you have access to right now)in both genders. Working memory
utilizes both the prefrontal cortex and the parietal regions. However,
men have a right side preference or use both hemispheres, while woman
have a strong preference for using their left hemisphere to work on a
task at hand. Also, though women had slower reaction times to the task,
they were more accurate in their performance. Speck, O. et al. 2000.
Neuroreport, Vol 11(11), 2581-2585.
~~
On the other side of
that sports coin - The University of Vermont did a study showing that
female athletes were more at risk of developing eating disorders. The
risk increases with the level of competition involved in the sports
activity. Picard (1999). Journal of Youth and Adolescence, vol 28(5),
585-594.
~~
In addition to racial
equity, colleges need to be aware of the gender balance in faculty as
well, according to a new study from the University of North Carolina.
Apparently, female graduate students have a greater academic
self-concept and greater career commitment when studying in a program
with a gender-balanced faculty as compared to a male-dominated faculty.
Ulku-Steiner, et. al. J. of Ed Psych. 2000 vol.92(2) 296-307.
~~
When 6th graders solve
applied math problems, girls are more persistent than boys. But, girls
report lower self-confidence and were more apt to blame errors on the
difficulty. Vermeer, et. al. J. of Ed. Psych. 2000 vol.92(2) 308-315.
~~
The University of
Pennsylvania has exposed another gender difference in human brains.
They show that women have a greater percentage of gray matter whereas
men have a higher percentage of white matter. Men have equal
percentages of white matter in both hemispheres, but a greater amount
of gray matter in the left hemisphere than right. There was no
difference in hemispheres in women. (White matter is made white by
myelination which speeds up electrical flow.) The higher percentage of
grey matter in womens'' brains is thought to allow more area available
for computation to make up for the overall smaller cranial space in the
skull. (white matter is thought to allow transfer of information across
distance). Gur, et. al. J. of Neuroscience, 1999 (May), vol. 19(10),
4065 - 4072.
HEAD/BRAIN
INJURY
~~ Researchers
in New South Wales
have investigated the relationship between severe head trauma and an
impairment of theory of mind. (Theory of Mind is the ability
to
understand the perspective of other people. For example one
of
the big differences between persons with Autism and Asperger's is that
those with Autism really struggle with theory of mind tasks).
These researchers found that people who had sustained serious brain
trauma did struggle with theory of mind and other tasks that require
making inferences. This, in addition to working memory
limitations associated with TBI and linguistic problems leads to poor
performance on a multitude of tasks. Bibby, H. & McDonald, S.
(2005). Neuropsychologia, Vol 43(1), 99-114.
~~ Ohio
State University
released a longitudinal follow-up study on pediatric Traumatic Brain
Injury. They followed children (under the age of 12) with
moderate to
severe TBI for several years. Residual problems include executive
functioning issues, pragmatic language, and social problem solving.
Yeates, K. et al. (2004).Journal of the International
Neuropsychological Society. Vol 10(3), 412-426.
~~
Adolescents who have experienced a closed head
injury (CHI) may encounter problems in written communication in
addition to other forms of communication. An Eastern Illinois
University study compared the written work of adolescents with and
without a history of closed head injury. Adolescents with CHI used
fewer words to express their ideas and were less elaborate in
explaining the relationship between their ideas. Wilson, B. (2002).
Brain Injury, Vol 16(11), 1011-1024.
~~
Do you talk to yourself while working on a
task? Many of us do. A Hong Kong study shows that talking to oneself
while performing a task is a particularly useful strategy for persons
with closed head injuries who can be easily distracted. It may actually
be useful to anyone who is having trouble paying attention in a complex
or distracting environment. Chan, R. et al. (2002). Journal of Clinical
& Experimental Neuropsychology, Vol 24(5), 695 - 704.
HEARING
IMPAIRMENT
~~
A study out of Germany
shows that early detection of hearing impairment is possible by
listening to a baby's cry. "Expert listeners" can detect hearing
impairment and its severity through melody, perceived sound, and rhythm
of the cry. Moller, et. al, (1999). Speech and Communication. vol.
28(3), 175-193.
HOMEWORK
~~
A study out of Ohio
State University shows students do better with more frequent testing.
Weekly spot quizzes tended to have a greater effect on exam improvement
than homework. Kass, S. 1999. APA Monitor, vol. 30(9).
~~
Homework or no
homework? That's a difficult question. According to research, student
achievement has little relationship to whether or not the class has
assigned homework. In elementary grades, teacher assigned homework
actually correlated to students' poor attitude toward school.
Achievement DOES relate positively to how much time the parents spend
assisting with homework - which should come as no surprise to anyone.
Cooper, et.al. 2001. Journal of Experimental Education. vol 69(2)
181-199 and Journal of Educational Psychology (1998), vol 90(1),70-83.
INTELLIGENCE
~~
Music lessons make children smarter. So says
brand new
research out this month from the University of Toronto. Researchers
found that children's IQ scores increase an average of 1 point per 6
months of lessons. So, in theory, a child taking music lessons from age
7 to age 12 would have an increase of 10 points in their IQ due to the
music. We will be watching this research as details are released.
Schellenberg, G. et al (2006) Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol
98, (2).
~~ Children with the
fewest numbers of siblings perform the best on tests of intellectual
skills and educational achievement. The reason for this appears to be
that additional children dilute parental resources. These resources
would include time, money and interactions. Downey (2001). American
Psychologist, vol 56(6/7), 497-504.
~~
Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) can affect the
cognitive functioning in children. A study out of the University of
South Carolina shows a relationship between SCD and lower IQ scores.
Schatz, J. et al. (2002). Journal of Pediatric Psychology, Vol 27(8),
739-748.
~~
Children born with very-low-birthweight, can
attain normal cognitive functioning by school-age. Researchers in
Sweden studied large groups of 5 and 6 year olds who had very low
weights at birth and compared their IQ and task performance with a
control group of children. While there was a much wider variety in IQs
among the low birthweight children, and many were low on the
performance subscale, most fell well within the normal range of
intelligence. Bohm, B. et al. (2002). Developmental Medicine &
Child Neurology, Vol 44(8), 508-516
~~ Looking for a quick way to
estimate verbal
intellectual ability with adult learners? The North American Adult
Reading Test (NAART) has recently been shown to be a reliable and valid
predictor of verbal ability and correlates well with the more time
consuming WAIS-R. Uttl, B. (2002). Journal of Clinical &
Experimental Neuropsychology, Vol 24(8), 1123-1137.
~~
What correlates with
giftedness in children? According to Ellen Winner at Boston college,
here are the qualities and features that tend to be exhibited by gifted
children: strong right-hemisphere development, language-related
difficulties, autoimmune disorders, high levels of motivation, and
social and emotional difficulties. American Psychologist, January 2000
Vol. 55, No. 1, 159-169.
~~
Just so you have a
little variety in the hot topics - A study out of the University of
Denver finds a positive correlation between IQ and brain size. This was
an aside from their study comparing brain sizes in identical twins to
discuss whether brain size results more from genetics or environmental
factors. It should be no surprise that they found genetics to play a
big role. Pennington, et.al. (2000). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.
Vol 12(1), 223-232.
LANGUAGE
~~
If you work with young Spanish speaking
students in an
English speaking school system, you know the difficulty in predicting
English reading problems early-on. But new research out of
the
University of California shows that measuring Spanish Short Term Memory
(STM) and Working Memory (WM) will predict English reading
performance. In grade 1, a test of Working Memory
which
uses both Spanish and English works best at predicting English reading
success, but by the 3rd and 4th grade, a test of WM alone becomes your
best predictor. Swanson, H., Saez, L. & Gerber, M.
(2006).
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 98(2), 247-264.
~~ While
many
feel that
learning a 2nd language after the age of 12 changes the way the brain
processes that language, new research out of France may show
otherwise. French researchers used fMRI scans on French /
English
bilingual speakers. Half were bilingual from birth and half learned
their second language after age 12. Articulation of both languages
showed little difference in the brain regions involved. The
extent of
the neural networks involved was also similar. This contradicts other
research we've seen so we'll have to watch and see how this develops.
Frenck-Mestre, C. et al. (2005). Neuroreport: For Rapid
Communication
ofNeuroscience Research, Vol 16(7), 761-765.
~~ A
more recent study, related
to the one above comes from Harvard. Researchers there had bilingual
Spanish/ English kindergarten students watch either "Between the Lions"
or "Arthur" periodically throughout the school year. Their finding show
that actually "Arthur" was a better aide for the development of English
skills than "Between the Lions" for these bilingual kindergartners.
Uchikoshi, Y. (2005). Developmental Psychology, Vol 41(3), 464-478.
~~
Many bi-lingual children who have difficulty learning
English also have difficulty learning to read. Researchers at
the
University of California looked at the common underlying cognitive
processes to see if difficulties in one could predict difficulties in
the other. Their study found that while somewhat related, the
two
problems have different underlying problems. Children who
struggle to learn English generally have problems with a
language-independent working memory system. Children who
struggle
with reading tend to have trouble with a language-specific phonological
area of short term memory. Swanson, H. et al. (2004). Journal
of
Educational Psychology. Vol 96(1), 3-18.
~~ Following more research in reading, this same issue covers a study
out of England on reading comprehension problems with middle grade
children. They were looking at the relationship and
importance of
working memory deficits on reading comprehension. Much research has
been dedicated lately to the role of working memory and reading. This
study supports earlier theories that there is a hierarchy of skills
involved in reading and that problems may occur at any level.
We
need
to look for problems at the lowest point of difficulty ( word attack
skills) and move up through the more complex chain (inference making,
comprehension monitoring) and finally the processing capacity in
working memory. This study concluded that while working memory is a big
factor in reading comprehension it is not the sole culprit of
comprehension problems. The study concludes with several
suggestions
for working with middle grade struggling readers and would certainly be
worth reading for many educators who work with grade 3 - grade 7
students. Cain, K., Bryant, P. & Oakhill, J.
(2004).
Journal of
Educational Psychology. Vol 96(1)31-42.
~~
Two more studies (one
out of Stanford Univ. and the other out of McGill Univ. in Montreal)
are supporting the idea that bi-lingual speakers use a common area of
the brain for language. The first study used a functional MRI to show a
shared region of semantic analysis in the frontal lobes of
Spanish/English speakers. The other study used PET scans of
Chinese/English speakers and verb generation. In both of these studies,
the second language was acquired later in life, but apparently the
second language uses the same regions as the first. Illes, et.al.
(1999). Brain & Language, vol 70(3), 347-363. Klein, et.al.
(1999).
Neuroreport, vol 10(13), 2841-2846.
~~
Words and their meaning
are generally processed by the left brain hemisphere. But a new study
shows that very familiar nouns (famous names, personally relevant
nouns) are processed by the right hemisphere as well. This gives
support to attaching new, foreign information to students' relevant
personal knowledge base in order to better utilize both brain
hemispheres. Ohnesorge, C. & Van Lancker, D. 2001. Brain
&
Language, Vol 77(2), 135-165.
~~
Complete the following 2 tasks: 1. The dog ran
around the ___________. 2. The dog ran around the tree / car. (circle
one) You use a different brain region for task one than you use for
task two. You will use regions of your frontal lobes for both tasks,
but only in task #1, which asks you to generate a word, involves a
major use of your right lateral temporal cortex. This is according to a
German study which hypothesizes that we use that right temporal region
to process linguistic context and evaluate multiple meanings of words.
This is one more study showing us the complexity of reading, writing
and decision making and all the different regions which can be involved
in reading problems. Kircher, T. et al. 2001. Neuropsychologica, vol
39(8), 798-809.
~~
Our language shapes our thinking process.
Stanford University published a study comparing the concept of time
between English speaking and Mandarin speaking people. English speakers
tend to talk and think about time as if it were a horizontal concept.
Mandarin speakers think about time in a vertical model. Bi-lingual
speakers' mental model depends upon which language they learned first
and the age at which they were exposed to their second language.
Boroditsky, L. 1001. Cognitive Psychology, Vol. 43(1), 1-22.
LEARNING
~~ When teaching early elementary classes containing students
who are English-language learners (ELLs), the teacher may want to
enhance
vocabulary instruction with multimedia. So say researchers looking at
this
instructional method. In settings with both ELLs and non-ELLs, the
researchers
found that using multimedia significantly improved ELLs' knowledge of
instructional
words to the point where the gap between ELLS and non-ELLs was nearly
closed. The effects for the non-ELLs, while not detrimental, were not
significant. Silverman, R. & Hines, S. (2009). Journal of
Educational Psychology.
Vol 101(2), 305-314.
~~ Researchers at Vanderbilt University
conducted a large
random survey of 1st grade teachers around the US regarding classroom
writing instruction. Based on their results,they make the following
recommendations: 1. increase the amount of time students write. 2.
Increase time spent writing expository text. 3. provide better balance
between time spent writing, learning writing strategies, and teaching
writing
skills 4. more emphasis on fostering students' motivation for writing
5. develop stronger connections for writing between home and school 6.
make computers a more integral part of the writing program . Cutler, L.
& Graham, S. (2008). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 100
(4), 907-919.
~~ Parents and educators frequently debate
the
value of retaining a first grader. A 4-year longitudinal study looked
at the effects of retention on subsequent math and reading achievement
comparing age-related and grade-related scores. While retaining first
graders led to a short term increase in math and reading achievement,
in the long term, the promoted children scored higher in both reading
and math. Wu, W., West, S., & Hughes, J. (2008). Journal of
Educational Psychology, Vol 100(4), 727-740.
~~ If you're a teacher, no doubt you
occasionally have to offer students assignments which they perceive as
uninteresting. However, you can support and help maintain students'
motivation, engagement, and learning during these lessons simply by
providing a rationale for the assignment. Researchers found that when
provided with external rationales for perceived uninteresting
assignments, students can generate enough motivation to engage
constructively and learn from the lesson. Hyungshim J. (2008). Journal
of Educational Psychology. Vol 100(4), 798-811.
~~ In elementary grades, reading and
spelling
curricula should be coordinated to overlap as much as possible.
Canadian researchers have found that young readers can transfer
familiarity from reading to spelling and from spelling to reading. In
other words, children were better able to spell words they had repeated
practice reading and could better read words they had repeated practice
spelling. Conrad, N. (2008). Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol
100(4), 869-878.
~~
The search for math and verbally "gifted"
students
generally involves traditional scholastic aptitude tests.
Researchers
have discovered that tests which measure visual spatial ability, may
in-fact be a better indicator of math giftedness. Adolescents
with
high spatial ability are particularly gifted in nonverbal ideation and
should be recognized and encouraged to pursue higher math
studies.
Webb, R. et al (2007). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol
99(2),
pag 397-420.
~~
Middle and High School students frequently are
unaware
that history
is a subjective interpretation of reality. Students frequently see
history as a series of stories to be memorized and later recalled,
primarily because it has traditionally been taught with authoritative
textbooks which present a single view. Professional
historians,
however, use a combination of primary and other accounts and then
reason between the conflicting views. Students can be taught
to
reason
just as historians do. An interesting study out of Santa
Clara
University did just that. Using middle grade students, they
taught
them how to read and use sets of primary and secondary documents,
collaborate and write good argumentative essays. Students at all levels
of academic functioning wrote longer and more persuasive papers with
more accurate historical content. De La Paz, S.
(2005).
Journal of
Educational Psychology, Vol 97(2), 139-156.
~~
Why do you teach? Apparently,
teachers who are
motivated mainly by intrinsic factors, so called "autonomous
motivation", have a greater sense of personal accomplishment and fewer
feelings of exhaustion. Perhaps more importantly, they
promote
autonomy-supported teaching which offers students choice and greater
clarification of subject relevance. This type of teaching then is
reflected in students' more positive feelings for the task at hand and
greater behavioral engagement. The researchers for this study
concluded with concern that the increase in high stakes testing would
have a detrimental effect on these highly effective teachers
by
making them feel "less autonomous and consequently act in more
controlling ways toward their students."
Roth, G. et
al. (2007). Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol 99(4),
761-774.
~~ Researcher at UC-Santa Barbara compared students retention of
information when they were asked to construct their own graphic
organizers on information read in a text and compared that to the use
of teacher-provided graphic organizers. While you might think
that students later recalled more information from those organizers
they constructed themselves, in fact the researchers found no
difference at all in recall success.
Stull, A. &
Mayer, R. (2007). Journal of Educational
Psychology. Vol
99(4), 808-820.
~~
Children entering kindergarten with a knowledge
of
numbers, order of numbers, knowledge of letters and basic phonics, are
most likely to be doing well in school by the middle grades.
A
paper presented in this month's Developmental Psychology pooled
research from a variety of sources and studies to find that basic math
and reading skills at school entry do predict later school
success. Surprisingly, there was no correlation with social
and
emotional skills and later school success. The paper
emphasized
skills for this age group should be taught through "play" tasks and
other events perceived as fun for the preschooler rather than direct
instruction. Duncan, G. et al (2007) Developmental
Psychology,
Vol 43(6).
~~
Educational Psychologists are beginning to see
some
significant and positive research on Internet use and
children.
The pluses: home Internet use improves standardized test scores in
reading (the biggest effect is with low SES populations), children
develop complex academic performance skills in what they perceive as a
more "fun" environment, online reading enhances skills that traditional
book reading does not, children with Internet access at home are more
proactive in getting help for themselves and reinforcing what is taught
at school. The downside: the lower SES children, who benefit
most
from Internet, have the least access to it; children need a lot of help
in critically evaluating legitimate websites and using effective search
techniques. The general feeling among researchers is that American
teachers are lagging behind in professional development training to
help students effectively use the Internet. Other countries are putting
a lot of time and money into training teachers in this
area. Packard, E. (2007). Monitor on
Psychology, Vol.
38(10), 44-46.
~~
Much has been written on the relationship
between
how well children do in math and their mother's perception of how well
they think their child will do in math. Mothers who have high
expectations for their child's math performance, will in fact have
children who tend to do well. While the effect tends to peak
in
10th
grade, the effect is long-term. A mother's early perception of math
will correlate with the child's personal self-efficacy feelings for
several years past high school and even influences the child's career
choice. Bleeker, M. & Jacobs, J. (2004).
Journal of
Educational
Psychology. Vol 96(1), 97-109.
~~
Upper elementary students frequently struggle
with
composition skills, particularly those students with learning
disabilities. Research shows us that writing competence can be improved
by including explicit instruction in self-regulation strategies in
addition to composition strategies. Students who were taught
a
self-regulatory routine involving the self-reflective
practices
of (1)
self-assessment, (2) goal setting, and (3) strategy monitoring in
addition to basic writing strategies improved writing
performance.
Glaser, C. & Brunstein, J. (2007). Journal of
Educational
Psychology, Vol 99(2), 297-310.
~~
While much research is conducted on how to
improve
reading and writing in low SES, at-risk populations, very little has
been published on what it takes to really be outstanding with
middle-class, advantaged populations. Michigan State
University
set out to discover just what it takes to really excel with relatively
advantaged students. The ingredients? A Reading-and-Writing
focused curriculum that included exposure to many books and explicit
instruction in both reading and writing, teachers' use of a multitude
of motivational mechanisms, a school-wide pro-social attitude, the use
of individualized or differentiated instruction, and an administration
with a clear academic focus and an awareness of each individual teacher
and classroom. Pressley, M. et al (2007). Journal
of
Educational Psychology, Vol 99 (2), 221-240.
~~
The development of writing skills in the early
grades is a very complex process. Researchers in Delaware
looked
at
the factors influencing the development of descriptive writing in urban
schoolchildren, grades 1 - 3. They found several factors of
influence: the student's basic literacy skills, the breadth
of
reading
materials in the classroom (a greater number of genres equated with
steeper writing improvement), whether or not the classroom had a
designated "writing center" in the room, whether writing materials were
easily available in the room, and the individual teacher's
instructional model. Coker, D. (2006). Journal of Educational
Psychology, Vol 98(3), 471-488.
~~
Elementary schools which serve low-income
families and
communities should aim to increase parent involvement as a way of
increasing literacy. So says research released this month out
of
Harvard University and Boston College. Students in grades K-
5 in
ethnically diverse, low-income areas showed significantly improved
literacy rates when parental involvement increased. Dearing,
E et
al. (2006). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 98(4),
653-664.
~~
Preschool teachers of at-risk children can have
a very
positive effect on language and the literacy skills. Researchers at
Johns Hopkins and the University of Michigan taught language and
literacy intervention strategies to 10 Head Start teachers. The focus
was on vocabulary and conversation development. At the end of the year,
the children in these language and literacy classrooms scored
significantly higher on tests for Vocabulary and expressive language.
Wasik, B. et al (2006). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 98(1),
63-74.
~~ Hofstra University conducted a study where they asked
250 principals of secondary schools to rate their views on the causes
of
ineffective teachers. Half the principals were from high performing
schools
and half from low performing schools. Interestingly both groups of
principals
identified pedagogical issues over content knowledge issues. Their top
3 culprits: classroom-management skills, lesson-implementation skills
and rapport with students. The least problematic issue they found to
cause
teacher ineffectiveness: content knowledge! This certainly contradicts
many
political agendas nationwide. Torff, B. & Sessions, D. (2005).
Journal of
Educational Psychology, Vol 97(4), 530-537.
~~ Educators have spent a great deal of time trying to measure
student learning styles and some time trying to match instructional
style
to learning style. Researchers at the University of Regina have shown
that
students' perceived learning styles (as measured by paper/pencil tests)
do
not correlate to real objective measures of learning success using
visual,
auditory and kinesthetic instructional methods. Further investigation
shows
that paper/pencil learning styles tests may simply measure a student's
preference
for learning and a general belief about how they learn. Other factors
such as interest
in the subject, engaging method of delivery and other motivational
issues play
a bigger role in successful learning. Learning styles vary, in fact,
within one
student for various subjects and task difficulty. Kratzig, G. &
Arbuthnott, K.
(2006). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 98(1), 238-246
~~ Two of my favorite researchers, Lynn & Douglas Fuchs teamed
up with other researchers to look at 3rd graders' cognitive skills and
how various
ones correlated to the 3 areas of 3rd grade math - arithmetic,
algorithmic computation,
and word problems. They looked at how each influenced the other and
how,
language, problem solving, working memory, processing speed,
phonological
decoding, attention and sight word efficiency also correlated to them.
A few surprises:
While arithmetic influence the other two, algorithmic computation did
not correlate
to word problems (you can do one without the other). Attention strongly
correlated to all 3, and interestingly, short term memory did not
correlate (which
goes against previous research). Educators involved with mathematics
may want
to take a look at this study in detail. Fuchs, L., et al (2006).
Journal of
Educational Psychology, Vol 98(1), 29 - 43.
~~ Preschool teachers and
parents take note: Adding more numbers to your vocabulary
when
speaking to preschoolers helps boost their math skills.
Researchers at
the University of Chicago found that when teachers of 3-5 year olds
used more numbers in their everyday conversations and instruction,
their students' math skills improved. Simple things like,
"This
group
of 3 can line up now" is better than "This group here can line up
now." Klibanoff, R. et al.(2006)Developmental Psychology, Vol
42(1).
~~ Children's
mental models of
numbers, number lines
and number relationships greatly affect math achievement. In
young children (grades K / 1) most children struggle with linear
conceptions of the numbers 1 -100. If presented a line
labeled
only at 1 and 100, and asked place random numbers in their estimated
position, children tend to put great space between lower number and
clump the higher numbers close together near 100. By grade 2,
children can handle estimating the positions of numbers between 1 - 100
fairly accurately, but make similar mistakes on number lines of 1 -
1000. Children with better visualization of the linear
relationship of numbers tend to score better in math. Some
evidence exists that teaching young children number games and giving
more exposure to number lines and relationships can improve
math.
Siegler, R. & Booth, J. (2005) Child Development, Vol
75(2),
428-444.
~~ Unlike
reading, little
research has been done
on the genetic component to math disabilities and poor math
performance. A new study from the U.K. is changing
that.
Researchers tracked several thousand twin pairs in the UK from birth to
7 years of age. Mixing the environments and teachers, but not
instruction (UK has a national curriculum), they compared math
performance between twin pairs, both identical and fraternal.
The
results - genetics make a significant contribution to math struggles
and math disabilities. The researchers caution however that although
there is this apparent genetic influence on math performance, it does
not imply at all that there is nothing that can be done about math
performance. In fact there is much research to support that
good
teaching and the home environment play a big role in math performance
in children. Oliver, B. et al. (2004). Journal of
Educational Psychology, Vol 96(3), 504 - 517.
~~
Many students enjoy learning math from
multimedia computer games. Research shows that those games
which
use multiple representations are better than those using only one, but
research has now been released showingthat the discovery learning
opportunities alone with these programs is not enough. Children need
verbal assistance or guidance when using multimedia programs for
learning to really get the best long term understanding. And
for
many students, multimedia programs are very ineffective for learning
math processes. Students with very limited understanding of
computer use and students with poor working memory both would benefit
more from alternative instructional methods. So, this current
research shows that verbal guidance given along with discovery based
computer programs gives the best results for learning complex
arithmetic procedures in many, but not all children.
Moreno,R.
& Duran, R. (2004). Journal of Educational
Psychology, Vol
96(3), 492-503.
~~
Practice not only makes
perfect, it makes the brain efficient. What has previously been seen
with monkey brains now has been seen on humans. Using functional MRI, a
German University has shown that when learning a motor movement (in
this case learning to play the piano), a great deal of the motor region
of the brain is used. With experience, smaller and smaller regions of
the brain are used. In professional musicians, only very tiny regions
of the motor cortex are involved in their playing. Thus practice makes
neural networks efficient and frees up regions of the cortex again to
be used for other things. Jancke, L., et.al. 2000. Cognitive Brain
Research. Vol.10(1-2), 177-183.
~~
There's an article in the most recent edition
of APA's Monitor outlining new research by David Klahr at Carnegie
Mellon University. The research shows that frequently "direct
whole-class instruction" is far superior to the "discovery method" of
learning, especially in lower elementary classrooms. The researchers
found that direct instruction is not only superior on tasks like math,
which children find hard to discover on their own, but also for
elementary science processing. Children need teacher directed lessons
in how to set up good critical thinking science labs and experiments.
Adelson, R. (2004). Monitor on Psychology. Vol 35(6), 34-36.
~~
A study out of the
University of Colorado showing that once you are an expert in an area
you are able to learn and recall huge quantities of new information in
that area. In fact, when compared to novices in your special field, you
are the superior learner. The reason has to do with the tremendous
number of associations you can make to the new information. So here's
one more study showing that recall is greatly dependent on the number
of connections one can make in their memory system. Help students find
connections! Van Overschelde, J. & Healy, A. 2001. Journal of
Exp.
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. Vol 27(5), 1160-1171
~~
According to a study out
of New York's Columbia University, praise students more for their
effort than for their intelligence. The study showed that in 5th
graders, praising intelligence actually caused them to work less,
experience less enjoyment and less persistance in tasks. Praising
effort had just the opposite effect. Mueller & Dweck (1998).
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology. Vol 75(1) 33-52.
~~
Smaller class size
doesn't seem to make a difference in quantity of material taught, but
certainly does effect quality. A study out of UC-San Diego, shows that
in smaller classes, teachers covered the same amount of material during
the year, but the time spent on individual assistance, tutoring, and
one-on-one help increased. Betts, J. & Shkolnik, J. 1999.
Educational Evaluation & Policy Analysis.Vol 21(2), 193-213.
~~
The University of
Illinois has been studying children's tendency to ask for help.
Children who have lower academic expectations for themselves tend to
ask for help less often. The study found that classrooms that emphasize
self-improvement rather than relative ability encourage students to ask
for help. In other words, let your students focus on how well they
personally have improved rather than on comparing themselves to others
in the room.
~~
A study at the
University of California helps shed new light on the problem of
seductive details in text. Seductive details are illustrations or funny
stories which are designed to catch and keep student attention, but
generally end up shifting their focus so that they do not grasp and
retain the main intent of the text. Many studies have shown that
students have lower test scores on information presented in text with
seductive details than in straight texts which simply lay out the
information. According to this study, the placement of the seductive
details in important. These extraneous stories and pictures do the most
"damage" when placed at the beginning or dispersed throughout the
passage. They do the least "damage" when placed at the end. Does this
mean we need to get rid of textbooks with interesting stories, funny
tales and exciting illustrations? Probably not, as we know students are
more likely to read when the text holds their attention, but we need to
make sure that the stories and illustrations are not irrelevant in
providing content ideas, otherwise they become distracting. Too often
the students remember only the dramatic, irrelevant pictures and not
the main idea being presented. Harp & Mayer, J. of Ed.
Psychology,
1998,v.90,3, 414-434.
~~
Willamette University
shows that music therapy is effective in improving emotional and
cognitive skills in individual with dementia. Koger, et.al Journal of
Music Therapy, 1999, v 36, 1, 2-15.
~~
A University of Michigan
study found a postive correlation between help-seeking behavior and
student's perception of classrooms which address their social and
emotional needs. A longitudinal study of middle schoolers shows that
children tend to ask for help in classrooms where the emphasis was on
trying hard, making self improvment, and had an environment where
risk-taking was allowed. In classrooms where relative ability and
criteria goal setting was emphasized, students were less likely to seek
help. It should also be pointed out that this help-seeking behavior was
unrelated to the teacher's view of the classroom, only the students'
view. Ryan, et.al, J. of Ed. Psychology, 1998,v.90,3,528-535.
LEARNING
DISABILITIES
~~
Florida Atlantic
University made a comparison study of student adjustment problems
during the transition between elementary and middle school. The study
compared learning disabled students with students without learning
disabilities. Interestingly, the study found no difference in school
adjustment problems during the transition. Good or bad, students with
learning disabilities tend to fare just as well as students without
learning disabilities. Forgan, and Vaughn (2000). Journal of Learning
Disabilities, Vol.33(1), 33-43.
~~
Children with visuospatial learning
disability (VLD) often have problems in arithmetic. Their difficulties
stem not from problems with calculations or arithmetic knowledge, but
with the writing component. Researchers in the U.K. studied arithmetic
and calculation ability in children with and without VLD. While both
groups could do oral calculations at similar proficiency, the VLD group
showed significant problems when the operation had to be put in
writing. They especially struggled with borrowing and carrying
particularly with subtraction. Venneri, A. et al. (2003). Child
Neuropsychology, Vol 9(3), 175-183.
~~
The American Psychological Association is
taking an active role in the IDEA legislation seeking to re-define how
we identify students as learning disabled. Their criticism comes from 3
areas - First, there is too much variation between states in how much
difference must be found between IQ and achievement. They feel the
criteria should be standardized nationwide. Their second complaint is
that the tests and formulas used to determine learning disabilities are
prone to error and statistical inaccuracies. Their recommendation is
that schools use a more continual assessment. Their third complaint is
that the system now has what they call a "wait and fail" approach in
that the average child is not recognized as learning disabled until the
age of 11. One alternative they are looking at is the "response to
intervention" model where a system of intervention steps are used to
see what types of progress can be made before the special ed system
takes over. (Bailey, page 58)
~~
It is often difficult to tell if a child's
academic impairments stem from brain and neurological problems or from
simply a lack of environmental opportunities. Researchers in Tucson
have shown that when evaluating such children, if you couple
traditional tests with a test for sensory-motor function, it makes it
easier to distinguish between the two causes. Reitan, R. &
Wolfson,
D. (2003). Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, Vol 18(1), 11-18.
~~
Indiana University
completed a study of students with Learning Disabilities(LD) Half the
LD students were included in the regular classroom for reading and
math. Half the LD students received reading and math instruction in a
resource classroom. The LD students in the regular classroom made
significantly more progress in reading and comparable progress in math
when compared to the students in resource classes.
MEMORY
~~ Every event we experience binds to our
memory
in 3 separate ways. (1) The Context - the event and its surroundings
(2) the series Episode - how the experience unfolds in time (3) a Link
to common elements. Our "Memories" then are all 3 of these networked
together in a recollection. But recollection is separate from
familiarity. In facts they may involve separate brain areas. We know
that the hippocampus is involved in recollection, but also that if the
hippocampus is removed, an animal can still have familiarity. This
networking of the memory systems allows us to associate. For example,
if A is linked to B, and B is linked to C, our brains can associate C
and A. Eichenbaum, H. "Neurobiology of Recollection". Invited Address
presented at APA National Conference, Boston, MA Aug. 16, 2008.
~~
Feel like your memory just isn't what it used
to be?
Most of us know that memory is affected by age and one of the earliest
signs of mental decline that we notice. But learning and
memory
can be
improved at any age. According to experiments done on other
animals,
young brains can improve learning and memory by physical exercise
alone. Middle-aged brains can improve by combining physical
exercise
with mental exercises. Older brains can improve through either physical
or mental exercise alone. Harburger, L, et al.
(2007).
Behavioral
Neuroscience, Vol 121(4).
~~
Semantic memory failure is of particular
interest to both
educators and persons who work with Alzheimer's patients. New
research is showing us the complexity of semantic memory
problems. If a student "can't remember" something, it is due
to
either a problem with storage of long term information, or
just a
problem in the process of accessing it. We're now seeing that the
processing problems may be bigger contributors to memory problems than
storage issues are. Actual loss of knowledge is associated
with
trouble in the left temporal lobe. The inability to retrieve
or
process the information appropriately is associated with frontal lobe
problems. Persons with Alzheimer's apparently lose some of their
ability to make rule-base judgements which can cause retrieval
processing problems. Azar, B. (2007). Monitor on Psychology,
Vol.
38(5), 16-17
~~
Working memory and working memory problems are
a hot
topic in education. "Working Memory" is a temporary, limited
capacity system which balances items retrieved from long term memory
along with processing events. In other words, you are holding
some items for the purpose of doing something with them.
Cognitive load is then divided between the need to hold the information
and circuits required for the processing. The more difficult
the
processing, the less resource is available for the holding of
information. So problems for students can stem from too much
time
and circuitry needs for processing which leads to a loss of the
information stored or interference which disrupts the
processing.
The more similar the interference is to the items being stored, the
less likely the children will later retrieve the results correctly.
Barrouillet, P. et al, (1007). Jour. of Experimental Psych:
Learning, Memory and Cognition, Vol 33(3), 570-585.
~~
Many educators are aware of the academic
challenges
for students with poor working memory. Researchers are
dissecting
working memory into its 2 main components - primary memory, which is
the dynamic attention component and secondary memory, which is the
search component sector. Individual differences in working
memory
effectiveness may be due to both the ability to maintain information in
the primary memory and the ability to search for information
simultaneously with the secondary memory. Unsworth, N. & Engle,
R.
(2007). Psychological Review. Vol 114(1), 104-132
~~
Working Memory(WM) is a complicated
system. It
involves the 2 types of Short Term Memory (STM) (speech-based loop and
visual-spatial sketch pad), an executive function which accesses Long
Term Memory (LTM), and a monitoring component which manipulates and
recombines information from both LTM and STM. While WM
problems
are frequently blamed for math and reading struggles, researchers are
finding that each piece or component plays a unique role in learning
problems. In particular, the executive function appears the
biggest influence in mathematical problem-solving deficits.
Swanson, H. (2006). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol
98(2),
265-281
~~
The size of one's working memory can often be
frustrating
for adults and cause learning problems in children. Long considered one
of the things we cannot change, short term, or working memory can
generally hold 7 bits, or 4 items of information. A more narrow
component of working memory is focal attention which can only hold one
item at a time. Problems in both working memory and focal attention are
blamed for ADHD problems in children. New research is showing that some
of the tests used to measure focal attention can sometimes be used as
practice activities for persons with ADHD and that these activities can
improved those individuals' ability to focus. Dingfelder, S. (2005).
Monitor on Psychology, Vol. 36(8), 48 - 50.
~~ Recent
research out of Massachusetts further supports the idea that episodic
memories (remembering) involve more inter-hemispheric brain processing
while semantic memories (knowing) involve heavy intrahemispheric
processing. This new research correlated handedness to the
whole
affair. Given that a mixed-hand preference (someone who can
use
their
right or left hand to some extent on various tasks) usually indicates
strong interhemispheric communication in the brain, the researchers did
find that mixed-handed people tend to have a greater reliance on their
episodic memories. Those of us with a strong hand preference (can do
very little if anything with our non-dominant hand) would have less
emphasis on interhemispheric communication and indeed the researchers
found this group to have a greater strength or reliance on semantic
memory. Propper, R & Christman, S. (2004).
Memory. Vol
12(6),
707-714.
~~ Persons
who use vivid
imagining to remember things may be more susceptible to false
memories. According to researchers at Northwestern
University, if
people are asked to try to use vivid mental images to help remember
stories, words or tasks, these people are more likely to create false
memories on future recall and believe that they are actually
remembering a real event they witnessed rather than just something they
were told to learn. The vivid imagining creates an erroneous memory.
Gonsalves, B. et al. (2004). Psychological Science.
Vol
15(10),
655-660.
~~ As
you may be aware, the
prefrontal cortex is associated with working memory - your ability to
"hold" items while working on them and associated tasks.
Researchers in London have found that different perceptual
conditions may involve different regions of the prefrontal
cortex. The researchers were watching the activity in the
left
and right rostral prefrontal cortex (RPFC) while people had to listen
to speech and make decisions about the semantics and syllabic
construction of the words they heard. If the speech they heard was very
clear, the left RPFC was very active. If the speech was
degraded,
or muffled, then the activity lessened in the left RPFC and increased
in the right RPFC. So working memory may be strengthened or
weakened based on the monitoring demands we put on it. Sharp,
D,
Scott, S, & Wise, R. (2004). Cerebral Cortex, Vol 14(1), 1-10.
~~ Another interesting piece of research on working memory, this time
from Boston. Researchers used fMRI scans to examine which
neural
circuits were involved in processing visual information in working
memory versus auditory information versus both. No surprise
to
find that working memory is not as efficient in processing dual modes
(auditory and visual together) as it is when handling just
one.
But, while most of the neural regions involved for the individual tasks
were also involved in the dual processing task, there were actually NEW
neural regions involved in the dual task that were not seen in either
of the individual tasks. At least 4 regions were additionally
involved when a person has to process both visual and auditory
information at the same time. These new areas then could
cause
some of the cross modal working memory problems we see in
students. Yoo, S Paralkar, G & Panych, L. (2004)
Journal of
Neuroscience. Vol 24(6), 613-631.
~~
Here's more research that may be distressing to
those of
us with aging brains - Researchers at the University of New
Mexico used MRI and SPECT imaging to show that there are structural and
chemical changes in the hippocampus as part of the normal aging
process. Those learning and memory challenges so many of us
encounter as we age are probably due to the apparent loss of neurons in
the hippocampus. The hippocampus is largely responsible for
memory. Driscoll, H. et al (2003). Cerebral Cortex.
Vol
13(12), 1344-1351.
~~
Researchers from California and Montana teamed
up to look at the relationship between working memory (WM) and
struggles with math problem solving in the early elementary
grades. Their research pointed out that while Short Term
Memory
(STM) and WM are often considered the same, they are in fact different.
STM deals more with sequential phonological items whereas WM deals with
the integration of related items from Long Term Memory. So
while
children with serious math difficulties often have both STM and WM
deficits, they are not the same culprit. Serious math difficulties in
children of normal intelligence is a combination of phonological
processing, processing speed, inability to ignore the unimportant
information while maintaining the important ideas in the background,
and general problems with integrating information from long-term memory
- all of these are relative to overall executive function.
Swanson, H. & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. (2004). Journal
of
Educational Psychology, Vol 96(3), 471-491.
~~
Remember how we were
always taught that that little cerebellum thing hanging off the back of
our brains was only good for balance and motor control? Well, guess
what? New evidence is showing it may also coordinate some of the
activity involved in retrieving information from our episodic memory.
According to a new study out of the University of Iowa, the cerebellum
shows PET scan activity during conscious episodic memory retrieval. I
guess we'll have to pay more attention to that cerebellum now.
Andreasen, et. al. (1999) Human Brain Mapping, vol 8(4), 226-234.
~~
Autobiographical
memory or "episodic" memory has long been considered strongest and
easiest recalled when attached to emotion. Researchers in Germany were
trying to find out if these "affect-laden" memories used different
neural networks and if there was a difference between happy or sad
memories in terms of which brain areas were involved in the retrieval.
While there were some differences in other brain regions, the area
known as the orbitofrontal cortex was common to both types of
affect-laden information processing. Happy memories involved more of
the hippocampus regions, while sad memories used regions of the right
lateral temporal area as well as the left cerebellum. Markowitsch, H.
et al. (2003). Cortex. Vol. 39(4-5), 643-665.
~~
Looking for more
support for musical training and music education with children?
Researchers in China have recently released a study tracking children
with and without music training. Those children with music training had
significant improvements in verbal memory. One group of children stared
with music training but then discontinued for a year and their verbal
memory was much less than those children who had continued music
training. Visual memories show no such changes with music. Apparently
music training makes significant modifications to neurons in the left
temporal lobe in children which affects memory processing. Ho, Y. et al
(2003). Neuropsychology, Vol 17(3), 439-450.
~~
Children have
pretty good memories when it comes to content information, but "source"
memories are poor compared to adults. Researchers in New York measured
brain electrical activity in both children and adults as they retrieved
various information from their memory system. Because the frontal lobes
structures in children's brains are immature, they have great
difficulty remembering the source of knowledge, especially if the
sources are very similar. Source memory improves with age. The
researchers advise caution when using children as reliable witnesses.
Cycowicz, Y. et al. (2003). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol
15(5), 759-768.
~~
Retrieving episodic memories uses a great deal
of the attentional areas of the brain according to a Duke University
study. Episodic memories are those involving a personal experience such
as recalling an event you participated in. Researchers found that this
episodic retrieval involves the same complex network we use with visual
attention tasks (the fronto-parietal-cingulate-thalamic network). But
to their surprise, the retrieval also involves regions of the temporal
lobes suggesting that episodic retrieval involves more general
cognitive involvement than previously thought. Cabeza, R. et al.
(2003). Neuropsychologia, Vol 41(3), 390-399.
~~
Some of the memory
problems we encounter with age may be the result of frontal lobe
deterioration. According to a University of Arizona study, older
persons tend to have more "source memory" problems as opposed to "item
memory". In other words, you may remember the item, but not where you
learned it or who told it to you. This is a problem with the frontal
lobes and can be corrected if the person is reminded or cued to notice
the source of the information as they hear or view it. Glisky, E. et
al. 2001. Journal of Exp. Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.
Vol 27(5), 1131-1146
~~
Research continues to
show how emotions can really separate and accentuate memory. A study
out of Ohio, looked at whether emotion influenced false memories and
recall. The researchers demonstrated that we are much less likely to
misremember items that have emotional ties. Emotional attachment makes
our memories are clearer and less confused. (Teachers should try to
make learning an emotional event. Humor is great for that.) Pesta, B.,
Murphy, M., & Sanders, R. 2001. J. of Exper. Psy.: Learning,
Memory
& Cognition. Vol 27(2), 328-338.
~~
Another insight to
learning and processing information comes out of New York's Columbia
University. Researchers looked at the exact location of where new
memories are processed in the brain's hippocampus. We process someone's
face in one area and their name in another area. But to hook the face
with the name, we use a separate, 3rd area of the hippocampus with a
unique processing pattern. So we can recall a face or a name, but may
struggle with putting the two together. Small, S. et al. 2001. Nature
Neuroscience, Vol. 4(4), 442-449.
~~
A PET scan study in
Toronto shows that our visual memory re-organizes itself as the brain
ages. In this study, young and older persons did equally well on
short-term memory tests, but the two groups used very different neural
network pathways for the task. So as we age, the brain may re-arrange a
few networks. Bennett, P. et al. 2001. Act Psychologica, vol 107(1-3),
249-273.
~~
On a completely different subject, I
frequently get email questions concerning herbs and their benefits to
brain biology. I ran across a recent study out of the Netherlands which
looked at the effectiveness of ginkgo in helping memory impairment in
aging brains. In their double blind study, it apparently had absolutely
no effect. Sorry...maybe your money would be better spent on mentally
stimulating books. vanDongen, M. et al. 2000. Vol. 48(10), 1183-1194.
~~
By examining "tip of the
tongue" experiences in normal subjects, the University of Wisconsin was
able to break down the memory retrieval process into two steps. They
studied what properties of a word are available when the word itself is
out of reach. They concluded that step one of retrieval is the word's
abstract representation (meaning and syntax). The second step involves
retrieving the sound of the word. Vigliocco, et. al. Journal of Memory
and Language, 1999, v40, 4, 534-558.
MISCELLANEOUS
~~ Be happy and not just because it's summer, but make it a
habit. Researchers have been studying happiness. Happiness is a
combination
of life satisfaction, coping effectiveness and positive emotions. Happy
people
have more desirable life outcomes in general. And it's not enough to
just have
a general positive view of your life, you need in-the-moment positive
emotions. These build resilience and help you develop resources for an
overall satisfying life.
Cohn, M et al. (2009). Emotion. Vol 9(3), 361-368.
~~ In a new study, just released today,
researchers have found that almost 50 years after Stanley Milgram's
original study, people
are still just as willing to obey an authority figure. You may remember
studying Milgram's famous, "Blind Obedience to Authority" experiment at
Yale, where persons were asked to administer what they thought were
shocks to a stranger in another room. The study has now been replicated
by Jerry Burger and like Milgram, he found people today just as willing
to shock a perfect stranger, simply because a person in authority asks
them to. There was again, no difference in rates between the genders.
Burger, J. (2008). American Psychologist, Vol 63(1).
~~ There's new research linking milk
consumption
to muscle building and weight loss. If you have students who still
prefer sugary drinks to milk, you may want to share the new study which
used young men in weight training programs. They divided them into 3
groups. After exercise, one group drink a glass of milk, one group
drank a sugary "sports drink" and one consumed nothing in particular.
After 12 weeks, the group that drank milk developed more muscle mass
and lost more weight than the other 2 groups. (2007). American Journal
of Clinical Nutrition, Vol 86(2), 373-381.
~~ The ability to detect emotion develops
at a
very young age. BYU researcher, Ross Flom, has discovered that babies
can detect the emotion elicited from music as young as 5 months of age.
Using dis-habituation techniques, Flom found that babies can pick out
the "happy" song from others at 5 months of age, and can pick out the
"sad" song from others at 9 months of age. (2008) Oct 7. "Babies and
Beethoven: Infants can tell happy songs from sad, BYU study shows". BYU
News Release.
~~ Standardized achievement tests
correlate
little to success in adult life. By continuing our educational system's
emphasis
on standardized and high stakes test, we in are selecting kids for
things
that later in life won't do any good. We need to be selecting for and
encouraging leadership skills. "The world needs great leaders but has
few who are even good." In today's world you have to be creative or you
won't survive. Leadership means making a positive and meaningful
difference in the world - Robert Sternberg, (Dean at Tufts Univ - best
known
for his "triarchic theory of intelligence"). Wisdom, Intelligence and
Creativity. Presented at APA National Conference, Boston, MA Aug. 16,
2008.
~~
Teachers have always been told to be careful in
using sarcasm with their students. Researchers are looking at the brain
regions involved with sarcasm. Understanding and interpreting sarcasm
is a complex cognitive skill involving primarily regions of the
prefrontal cortex. It uses brain areas that are also involved in
pragmatic language and various social cognition skills. This explains
why young children and older children with prefrontal cortex challenges
are particularly prone to misinterpret sarcasm. Shamay-Tsoory, S
& Tomer, R. (2005) Neropsychology,Vol 19(3), 288-300.
~~
Dr Sonja Lyubomirsky is one of my favorite
researchers.
She's the leading researcher on the topic of happiness, what makes us
happy and how to control happiness. According to her newest
work,
perhaps 40% of our happiness is actually under our control.
With
just a few minutes of mental work, you can sustain happiness for
weeks. According to Lyubomisrsky, just spend 5 - 10 minutes
on a
daily basis "counting your blessings" - remembering and thinking of
happy life
events. Her other research has pointed to performing good
deeds
as another significant factor in maintaining happiness.
Novotney,
A. (2008). Monitor on Psychology, Vol 39(4), 24.
~~
If your school is trying to fight childhood
obesity by
replacing sugary sodas with artificially sweetened drinks - you may
want to rethink the situation. New research shows that
artificial
sweetners may actually slow down metabolism and encourage
overeating. While the studies thus far use only lab animals,
apparently having a sweet-taste in the mouth is linked in the brain to
the thought that calories and energy are on their way. When
those
calories do not appear, the metabolism is confused and activity level
decreases and the desire to eat increases. Swithers, S.
&
Davidson, T. (2008) Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol. 122, No. 1.
~~
When counting, gestures help.
Researchers
discovered that when students have to count things, those that could
point, nod or otherwise make body gestures, were faster and more
accurate than those who were not allowed to gesture. The
gesture
apparently adds rhythm which makes counting more accurate and also aids
the brain in maintaining place. Carlson, R. et al.
(2007).
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory
&
Cognition, Vol 33, 4.
~~ Over the past few decades, advertisers have moved from showing males
as individuals engaged in various activities, to using the male body as
simply a decorative object. This move toward objectifying men
has
psychologists concerned. Researchers have found that grade school boys
are particularly influenced by this shift. Ads showing males
active and engaged (such as bicycling, golfing, etc) boost boys' self
image, while ads using isolated male body parts (part of an upper torso
for example to sell cologne) diminished self esteem. Dingfelder, S.
(2007). "Good for sales, bad for boys?" Monitor on
Psychology,
Vol 38(8), pg 11.
~~
Bad deeds are not necessarily performed by bad
people. Bad deeds can be performed by anyone, given the right specific
situation. In fact, it is argued that most horrific deeds are done by
basically good people who have been put in a specific
situation.
This
"Lucifer Effect", is a new, hot theory put forth by Dr Phil Zimbardo
(you may remember him as the researcher responsible for the Stanford
Prison Experiment). Zimbardo proposes that there are no "bad
apples"
but rather "bad apple barrels.". Philip Zimbardo, PhD. Stanford
University. "Psychology of Evil: The Lucifer Effect
in
action."
Address presented at the APA convention August 18, 2007, San Francisco.
~~
Having a hard time keeping up with "alphabet
soup" of
childhood mental health disorders? If you're overwhelmed
already
with OCD, ADD, ADHD, ODD, PDD, and the like, then get ready for a new
one - DTD. "Developmental Trauma Disorder" may be the new
diagnosis for many of the reported 3 million children who are subjected
to repeated and serious trauma and neglect. The American
Psychiatric Association is looking to add DTD as a new diagnosis to
their next edition manual (DSM-5) when it comes out in 2011.
They
feel that PTSD works well as an adult diagnosis, but children have
different responses to chronic and severe stress given their
developmental period. DTD will help direct services to a
child's
more specific needs. DeAngelis, T. (2007). Monitor on
Psychology,
Vol 38(3), pg. 32.
~~
In women, ovarian hormones can influence the
effect of
some psychomotor stimulant drugs such as amphetamine and cocaine. Women
in the "follicular" stage of their menstrual cycle will be more
affected by these drugs than when used in the luteal phase of their
cycle. Terner, J. & DeWit, H., (2006). Drug and
Alcohol
Dependence, Vol 84(1), 1-13.
~~
At least 70% of obese adolescents will remain
significantly overweight as adults. Preventions and programs aimed
at preventing obesity in children need to come early. In a review of
intervention programs offered over the last 25 years, researchers found
the most effective were programs that targeted weight control alone
(as opposed to programs that discussed a variety of health issues
such as weight, smoking, heart disease, etc) and programs delivered
by professionals rather than school teachers. Even so, nearly 80% of
programs were ineffective. Those few that made a difference were very
intense and regimented. Males and pre-adolescents were unaffected
by any program. Shaw, H. & Marti, C. (2006). Psychological
Bulletin, Vol 132(5).
~~ Happiness - the "holy grail" of our society. One of
the
problems with happiness however is that it tends to be
short-lived. We
habituate to events that bring happiness very quickly.
Happiness
researcher Sonja Lyubomirsky reported on her finding about creating
sustained feelings of happiness. Her research finds there are
two
avenues which give long-term feelings of happiness: the first
is
a
daily accounting (on paper or reported to others) of the things we feel
appreciative of - sort of a "count your blessings" activity.
The
second avenue to sustained happiness is doing good deeds for others on
a regular basis. "Is It Possible to Become Lastingly
happier?
Experimental Inductions of Gratitude, Kindness, Optimism and
Reflection." Sonja Lyubomirsky, University of Calf - Riverside on
August 12, 2006,APA National Conference, New Orleans.
~~ The
NICHD is releasing their
findings from a longitudinal study they've conducted on early child
care and its effect on the cognitive and social development of children
throughout childhood. The study tracked over 1200 children
from
birth until 5 years of age. As other studies have shown, high
quality daycare, found with children from both SES extremes (upper
income families and impoverished families eligible for
government
sponsored child care) correlates with higher cognitive and language
scores. Children from middle class and "the working poor"
tend to
have the lowest quality day care. But "Mom care only" versus day care
in early childhood does not appear to make a difference in cognitive or
language scores. Parenting skills, mother's education and
income
levels still are the strongest predictor of higher cognitive scores
during early childhood, and far outweigh child care vs. stay-at-home
issues. But, the quality of child care does play a role. And
interestingly, the quantity of child care does too. Children
who
spend a lot of time during early childhood in child care centers tend
to have more social and behavioral problems in early elementary
school. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2006).
American
Psychologist, Vol 61(2), 99-116.
~~ And
finally, a hot topic we can
file in the "fun facts
to know and share with students." Most of us know humans have
a
dominant hand, a dominant foot, and even a dominant eye. But did you
know that you also have a dominant nostril? Apparently nasal
airflow
varies between our nostrils and the dominant nostril correlates with
handedness. In other words, right handed people have a
greater
airflow
through their right nostril and left handed people through their left
nostril. Searleman, A. et al (2005). Asymmetries of Body,
Brain&
Cognition, Vol 10(2), 111-120.
~~
Columbia University has
released new information showing that there are peak seasons for some
disorders. ADHD behaviors peak in August, Oppositional Deviant Disorder
and Marijuana use peaks August through September. Anxiety disorders,
obsessive-compulsive disorder and major depression peaks August through
October. Interestedly, alcohol use shows no particular season.
Kovalenko, et. al. 2000. Psychiatry Research, vol. 94(2), 103-119.
~~
Stand to your right
teachers. That's according to an interesting study out of the Bulgarian
Academy of Sciences. They used cinemas to study a person's preference
for seating and their resulting "directional bias" for watching a
performance. Regardless of whether a person is right or left handed,
people tend to prefer to sit on the right so that they are looking to
their left. Right handed people prefer to sit further right than the
lefties, but most all of us have a "look left" preference. Karev, G.
(2000). Cortex, Vol 36(5), 747-752
~~
A Cornell University
study shows growing evidence of a link between auto-immune system
issues and some psychiatric disorders, particularly Tourette's syndrome
and Obsessive- Compulsive Disorder. Researchers have found very
specific cell antigens in the blood of some of these children. There
continues to be a suspicion that some types of Tourettes my follow a
childhood streptococcus infection. Trifiletti & Packard. Child
& Adol. Psych. Clinics of N. America. 1999, vol. 8(4), 767-775.
~~
A Bouldin and Pratt
study out of Bundoora Australia shows that children with imaginary
companions between the ages of 3 and 9 years of age tend to be
1)first-born children; 2)very imaginative; 3) incorporate myth in their
play: 4) explain events as magical. Journal of Genetic Psychology,
(1999). vol 160(4), 397-410.
~~
Another interesting
article for summer reading is found right before the Pellegrini article
in the June issue of the Journal of Educational psychology. The article
is titled "Adding Legs to a Snake: A Reanalysis of Motivation and the
Pursuit of Happiness from a Zen Buddhist Perspective" by Robert
Gaskins. Gaskins provides an interesting alternative view of the sense
of self. He includes some classroom suggestions for helping students
with "the realization that every moment is fresh, unique, and brimming
with possibilities and should be the complete focus of our attention."
Gaskins, Journal of Educational Psychology. 1999. 91(2) 204-215.
NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS
~~
New Research is linking
near sightedness to sleeping with some light present. It seems that
children under the age of two who sleep with a night light or regular
room light on have an significantly higher chance of developing
nearsightedness. In fact 55% of children who slept with the light on as
infants are nearsighted and 33% of children with nightlight are
nearsighted. (University of Pennsylvania, School of Medicine).
OCD
~~
New studies out of
Australia and the US (New York) are linking obsessive-compulsive
disorder (OCD) in adolescents as a predictor to other problems such as
eating disorders and suicide. Zaider, T. et.al, (2000) International
Journal of Eating Disorders, Vol 28(1), 58-67. AND Haliburn, J. (2000).
J. of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,
vol
39(1), 13-14.
~~
Researchers in
Mexico are looking further into the genetic component of
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). They have found that not only do
you apparently inherit a specific gene for OCD, but even the severity
of your symptoms is genetically determined (by a receptor gene called
5-HT-1Dbeta). Camarena, B,et al. (2004). International Journal of
Neuropsychopharmacology, Vol7(1), 49-53.
~~
People with OCD
(obsessive compulsive disorder) generally have accompanying
disabilities In fact, 69% of people with OCD also have additional
disorders such as anxiety disorders, depression, or tic disorders.
Haliburn, J. (2000). J. of the Am. Academy of Child &
Adolescent
Psychiatry, Vol 39(1), 13-14.
ODD
~~
EEG patterns can be
used to diagnose some behavior disorders. In healthy children, after
the age of 4 years, girls and boys begin showing different hemisphere
preferences to problem solving. Girls prefer their left frontal lobe
and boys prefer their right. However, in boys with Oppositional Deviant
Disorder (ODD), their brains show no preference to a hemisphere and in
girls with ODD, you find a preference for the right frontal lobe.
Baving, L. et. al. 2000. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychiatry, vol
28(3), 267-275.
PROBLEM
SOLVING
~~
Problem solving is best
learned in groups. Not only do groups solve problems quicker than
individuals, but when members of the group have to solve subsequent
problems alone, they do better than those individuals without the group
experience. Barron. J. of Ed Psych. 2000 vol. 92(2) 391-398.
~~
The Journal of
Educational Psychology published a study showing how teacher gestures
can improve student problem-solving strategies, particularly in math.
If teachers did not gesture at all or gestured differently than the
strategy conveyed by speech in explaining a problem, students later
showed less understanding than students whose teachers used hand
gestures which matched and supported the verbal explanation.
Goldin-Meadow, et.al. (1999) vol 91(4), 720-730.
~~
Smart people may
have more efficient brains. An Austrian study used PET scans to watch
people "think." Persons with a higher IQ actually used less area of
their cortex when thinking through a problem and had brains that were
more focused, than persons with lower IQs. The researchers also saw
differences between genders. Females showed greater efficiency on
verbal tasks and males on tasks involving figures. Neubauer, A. et al.
(2002). Intelligence. Vol 30(6), 515-536.
READING
~~ Simply adding 20 additional minutes of
reading to the school
day will not significantly increase reading scores in elementary aged
children.
So says new research out this month. The researchers also found that
the
traditional lesson of reading, followed by teacher directed instruction
involving workbook practice or additional teacher-chosen reading,
individualized
for reading levels, also is rather ineffective in increasing reading
scores. After analysing the most popular types of reading instruction,
the researchers
found that the top 3 in terms of effectiveness were: (1) allowing
student choice
of books for guided independent reading (2) reading of more than 7
pages of
continuous text from classroom books (fiction or non) and (3) 15 -20
min of silent
reading with teacher monitoring, requiring 2 or more books on the same
subject,
reading applied to a global theme and follow-up open ended discussion.
Block, C. et al. (2009). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 101
(2), 262-281
~~ One way to increase the amount of class
time spent on
literacy is to embed reading comprehension training into content area
instruction.
This can be effective even in the primary grades as researchers at
Columbia
University have found. Teachers were trained to include instruction
about
structure, compare / contrast expository text, finding clue words, use
of
graphic organizers and analysis of text in their 2nd grade Science
instruction.
At the end of the study, there was no loss in the amount of science
content
acquired and the students had better performance on reading
assessments.
Williams, J. et al (2009). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 101,
1-20.
~~
Brain-imaging can assist in the detection of
reading
problems in elementary aged children. Stanford University and
Carnegie Mellon University have teamed up to look at how fMRI scans can
assist educators in early detection of reading problems.
Standard
literacy tests can detect reading problems about 68% of the time and
they've found that fMRI scans can find reading problems about 50% of
the time, but when you combine both the tests and the scans, you can
successfully find children at-risk for reading difficulties over 80% of
the time. APA press release, June 10, 2007 available at
apa.org
or through APA Public Affairs.
~~
Some remedial reading programs tout the
benefits of
alternating the presentation of words to a child's left and right
visual field. Research out of the Netherlands set up programs in which
2 groups of children repeatedly practiced reading words presented in
either the left or right visual field, or just to the central visual
field. While both groups improved in speed and accuracy, an improvement
the researchers attributed to simply the reading repetition, the
lateral group's improvement was no better than the central visual
field's improvement. Berends, I. & Reitsma,
P.(2005).
Journal of
Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, Vol 27(7), 886-896.
~~
While in recent years there has been much
pressure to
screen pre-K children for reading difficulties, the challenge has been
to find exactly what constructs to measure. What exactly will
predict
reading difficulties? A new study from Texas and Florida
researchers
took a look at what measures done in kindergarten will actually predict
reading problems in 1st and 2nd grade. They found that letter
naming,
letter sound knowledge, naming speed, and phonological awareness are
pretty good measures for predicting reading success for a kindergarten
when they reach grades 1 and 2. On the other hand, perceptual
skills,
oral language and vocabulary were not good predictors. Schatschneider,
C. et al. (2004). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 96,
(2),
265-282.
~~ The
educational television
program, "Between the Lions" is designed to improve the literacy skills
of young children. A group of researchers found that in fact, the show
does help the emerging literacy skills for at-risk kindergarten
children. Those at-risk kindergartners who viewed the program
had
a great increase in literacy skills than those who did not view the
program. The show had no effect on first graders. Linebarger,
D.
et al. (2004). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 96(2),
297-308.
~~ The
University of Copenhagen has achieved very positive results with a
program that provides early intervention for children at-risk for
dyslexia. They used a program, implemented by the regular kindergarten
teacher, that focused heavily on phoneme awareness training
particularly on initial consonants, with children whose parents had
dyslexia. Their results found long-lasting (7 years) and significant
reading improvement over those at-risk students who did not have the
program. While children not at risk for dyslexia remained
better
readers in grade 7 from the treatment group, the treatment group was
still significantly ahead of those at-risk children who were not in the
treatment kindergarten classrooms. Elbro, C. & Petersen, D.
(2004). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol96(4), 660-670.
~~ It
is
generally
thought that children have a cognitive advantage if their brain neurons
can myelinate and thicken at a fairly rapid rate. New
research
out of
Sweden shows us exactly what kind of advantage this can
bring.
They
used diffusion tensor MR imaging to determine the extent of myelination
and thickness of axons in children's (age 8 - 18) brains.
Children
with thick neuronal axons and extensive myelination in two regions of
the left frontal lobe showed a greater working memory than those
children with a lesser degree of myelination. Reading ability
in
children correlated with heavy myelination in the left temporal lobe.
Nagy, Z, et al. (2004). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,
Vol
16(7),
1227-1233.
~~
What makes a poor
reader? A variety of factors including: phonemic awareness, ability to
attend, word retrieval skills, capacity of short- term memory, parental
involvement, and inability to process syntax. One factor that does NOT
correlate to poor reading is IQ. Applied Psycholinguistics. 2000 Jun
Vol 21(2) 229-241 . Journal of the American Academy of Child &
Adolescent Psychiatry. 2000 Jul Vol 39(7) 859-867. Reading &
Writing. 2000 Mar Vol 12(1-2) 129-142 Reading Psychology. 2000 Jul-Sep
Vol 21(3) 195-215 Reading & Writing. 2000 Sep Vol 13(1-2)
81-103
Learning & Individual Differences. 1999 Vol 11(4) 377-400.
~~
A research team from the University of
Maryland has studied what would happen in a classroom if you mixed 2
known reading strategies for large groups - "strategy instruction" with
"motivation support". The researchers created a paradigm they call
Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI). The program helped
students establish content goals for reading, allowed student choice of
texts, used interesting texts, and encouraged social collaboration
during reading. These were combined with the cognitive strategies of
generating related questions, activating background knowledge,
summarizing text, searching for information, organizing information
graphically, learning the structure of stories and monitoring
comprehension. These two big reading components were combined and used
by whole classrooms of upper elementary students. Using a variety of
tests to measure understanding and reading strategies and motivation,
those classrooms who used the combined CORI formula did much better on
standardized tests than those classrooms who simply used "Strategy
Instruction" alone. So the researchers found that teaching reading
strategies is effective for improving reading but not near as effective
as coupling those strategies with motivational strategies and support
too. This is one of the first studies to demonstrate reading
improvement with large whole-class approaches in regular classrooms.
Guthrie, J. et. al.(2004). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol
96(3), 403-423.
~~
An interesting study in
the same journal, looked at the differences a reader goes through in
processing ambiguous verbs versus ambiguous nouns. When a person reads
a sentence containing an ambiguous noun (e.g., The ball....) the mind
tends to assume the most common use of that term and continue on. (In
this case you would picture a spherical toy object rather than a fancy
dance). When a reader comes across an ambiguous verb however, the mind
does not tend to assume the most common use, but rather postpones any
interpretation until the end of the sentence or clause which defines
the meaning. (e.g. We had disarmed....). This difference could explain
some of the problems struggling readers have in comprehension.
Ambiguous nouns could lead them astray if the usage was not the most
common use, and ambiguous verbs could lead them astray if they are
unable to capture the entire sentence. Pickering, M. & Frisson,
S.
2001. J. of Exp. Psy.: Learning, Memory and Cognition. Vol 27(2),
556-573.
~~
Along the same lines of the left brain/right
brain issue, a study out of New Zealand confirms what we've been told
for years: the left side of the brain is involved in reading. However,
their study shows that the right side is also very active in the
reading process. It's just not as efficient in the process as the left
side. The study was conducted using an interesting finger-tapping while
reading exercise. Waldie, K. & Mosley, J. 2000. Brain &
Language. Vol 75(1), 108-122.
REWARDS
~~ We are all familiar with trying to
decide if something is
worth the effort. The decision of should you work that hard or give up
now and take a smaller reward is based on dopamine levels in the brain.
New research now is going further to dissect which specific dopamine
receptors are involved. Neurons can contain up to 5 variations of
dopamine
receptors (D1,D2, D3, D4,D5) each triggered by different components in
dopamine and each responsible for different proteins and responses. In
training rats to work harder and harder to reach a large reward treat
(vs
a small, easy to get reward), when blocking D1 and D2 receptors, the
rats
gave up much quicker. Simulating D1 and D2 resulted in the rats working
harder for longer periods to reach the reward. The other subtype
receptors
showed no effect. This new research may lead to a new understanding of
how to help people who give up too easily. Bardgett, M. et al. (2009).
Behavioral Neuroscience. Vol 123(2), 242-251
~~
Edward Deci and
colleagues wrote a nice analysis of 128 recent studies on the effects
of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As expected, all the
studies point to external, tangible rewards as something which
significantly reduces intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, positive
feedback for tasks increases both the likelihood of an individual's
free-choice of that task and self-reported interest. Tangible rewards
were found to be more damaging to the motivation of young children as
opposed to college-aged students. Verbal rewards were also less
effective on younger children.
Deci,
et. al. 1999 (Nov)
Psychological Bulletin, Vol 125(6), 627-668.
SCHOOL
ISSUES
~~ Middle schoolers who feel victimized by
their
peers, perform poorly academically. Researchers found a similar
relationship between perceived victimization and poor academic
achievement across all ethnic races of children. The poor academics
results from the child's lower global self-esteem and their perception
of themselves as less competent. Thijs, J. & Verkuyten, M.
(2008).
Journal of Educational Psychology.
Vol 100(4), 754-764.
~~ Parents and educators frequently debate
the
value of retaining a first grader. A 4-year longitudinal study looked
at the effects of retention on subsequent math and reading achievement
comparing age-related and grade-related scores. While retaining first
graders led to a short term increase in math and reading achievement,
in the long term, the promoted children scored higher in both reading
and math. Wu, W., West, S., & Hughes, J. (2008). Journal of
Educational Psychology, Vol 100(4), 727-740.
~~
Bullying and the subsequent victimization is a
topic
of keen interest in US education. Approximately 14% of
adolescent
school children are considered "bullies" - a percentage that is similar
to other countries. About 18% of this age group are
considered
passive
victims - a percentage higher than many other countries, and about 5%
are considered aggressive victims. Both bullies and
aggressive
victims
tend to be highly emotional and lack self-control. This often
leads to
alienation among peers. Bullies tend to befriend other
bullies
whereas
aggressive victims tend to have few or no friends. Having
friends
and
being well-liked by peers protects victims from continued
bullying.
Boys tend to use more physical aggression and will bully both boys and
girls. Girls tend to use more relational
aggression.
Pellegrini, A.
et al. (1999). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 91(2),
216-224.
~~
Students show a gradual, but significant
decline in
both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation between grades 8 and grades
10. Researchers looked particularly at the transitional year
between
junior and senior high school. Students who showed the greatest
decrease in external regulation during the transition year, were most
at-risk for later educational problems such as absenteeism, intentions
of dropping out, and homework frequency problems. Otis, N. et
al
(2005). Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 97, (2), 170 -
183.
~~
Due to a unique period of brain
development, adolescents are prone to intense emotions that override
all logic and reason. This is a prime period for emotional -
motivational learning.
~~ Despite the peak of physical health found in adolescence, mortality
rates for this age group increases 200% solely due to behavior and
emotion issues. They have an inconsistent ability to regulate
their behavior.
~~
Have a child heading off to college this
year?
Researchers say that drop out rates at colleges could be significantly
reduced if colleges provided a more secure, almost family-like
environment for students in their freshman year. Students in
single room dorms are more likely to drop out than those with
roommates. Students attending classes in tiered classroom
where
they can see each other have a more positive learning
experience. Packard, E. (2007). Monitor
on
Psychology, Vol 38,(7), 54.
~~ Upper elementary students frequently struggle with
composition skills, particularly those students with learning
disabilities. Research shows us that writing competence can be improved
by including explicit instruction in self-regulation strategies in
addition to composition strategies. Students who were taught
a
self-regulatory routine involving the self-reflective
practices
of (1) self-assessment, (2) goal setting, and (3) strategy monitoring
in addition to basic writing strategies improved writing
performance. Glaser, C. & Brunstein, J.
(2007). Journal
of Educational Psychology, Vol 99(2), 297-310.
~~
While the topic of "bullying" at school has
been a hot
issue for quite some time, "electronic bullying" is a new branch which
has come about since the prevalence of cell phones and internet use by
teens. Researchers are looking a how electronic bullying compares to
traditional school bullying. They found that traditional
school
bullies are often the victims of electronic bullying but apparently by
other traditional school bullies because traditional victims were not
generally found to be electronic bullies. Basically, the kids
who
are the traditional school bullies are also responsible for being
electronic bullies. Raskauskas,J & Stoltz,A. (2007)
Developmental Psychology, Vol 43(3), 564-575.
~~
Social networking websites are a concern for
parents and
teachers. Educational psychologists have been studying this issue for
the past several years and share the concern. Sites such as
MySpace and FaceBook do have positive aspects in that they allow for
social contact for otherwise isolated teens. However, the
concern
is that the sites are also "normalizing" and even encouraging some
self-injurious behaviors among this age group.
Whitlock, J.
et al. (2006). Developmental Psychology, Vol.42(3), 407-417.
~~
More than 2 decades ago educational researchers
found that teachers hold different expectations for their students
based on race and ethnicity. Have things changed? Apparently
not
so
much according to new research released this year. Teachers still have
the highest expectations for Asian American students. Teachers also
hold more positive expectations and provided more positive speech for
European American students than Latino/a students and African American
students. Interestingly though, teachers aimed negative speech equally
to students regardless of race. Tenenbaum, H. & Ruck,
M.
(2007).
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 99(2), 253-273.
~~
The current issue of the Journal of Educational
Psychology has an interesting study on the relationship between
motivation and
emotion in students. Based heavily on previous research
showing
that students show positive emotions in classes where they perceive
they have some control over activities and achievement, the researcher
found that students who set "achievement goals" for themselves,
experience pride in their work, but students who set "mastery goals"
show more enjoyment of learning and hope as well as pride in their
work. Pekrun, R.; Elliot, A.; & Maier, M. (2006).
Journal of
Educ. Psychology, Vol 98(3), 583-597.
~~
"Tracking" students, based on academic
performance is the
source of much political debate here in the US and other industrialized
countries. Australian researchers looked at the issue around the globe
using 9th grade student's math self-concept as a guide. Their
findings: overall students in "upper level" tracks were more
negatively effected by tracking than students in "lower level" tracks
as students tend to compare themselves in their own immediate
surroundings as opposed to across age-group. Trautwein, U.,
et al
(2006) Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 98(4), 788-806.
~~
School violence is a hot topic across the US in
public schools. The American Psychological Association has
finished its task force examination of the issue. They have
found
first, that violence has NOT been on the increase in America's schools
in the last 2 decades, despite the media portrayal of that. And
secondly, that helping students understand and realize the difference
between "snitching" and "seeing help" by reporting what they know about
planned school violence can help administration and authorities
intervene and prevent many violent events. "Snitching Versus
Seeking Help: Barriers to Preventing School Violence" a
report by
Dewy G. Cornell, PhD, August 11, 2006, APA National Conference, New
Orleans.
~~ There have been 75 formal research studies on school-based
interventions for ADHD in over the last 25 years. The studies
have focused primarily on contingency / behavioral management
interventions to improve behavior and school success. The
results
however show that academic interventions (changing curriculum and
teaching methodology) has been just as effective as contingency
management schemes in helping students with ADHD.
"School-Based
Interventions for Children with ADHD: Twenty-Five Years of
Innovation." a report by George J DuPaul, PhD, Lehigh University on
August 11, 2006, APA National Conference, New Orleans.
(additional information on either of these hot topics can be searched
at the APA's website: apa.org)
~~
Choice and control, choice and control. These
are mantras
I've been singing for years when it comes to student-centered classroom
designs. New research supports this again in both classrooms and the
workplace. People who get some choice in the order in which they do
things, and the time they can spend on the tasks experience much less
mental fatigue AND they make a lot fewer errors in their work. Hockey,
R. et. al (2006). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied., Vol
12(1), 50 - 65.
~~ Gossip is all around us. It's an integral part of our social culture
and has become a hot topic of research as theories arise about the
importance of gossip in our evolution as a social creature. Gossip
helps form bonds, improves our self image and helps defines group
norms. Children, especially in middle grades, use gossip to improve
their social status and be popular. But that popularity comes at a
great cost as you move into high school. Popular girls in 5th grade as
well liked by their peers and they continue to use gossip to maintain
their status. But starting around 10th grade, popular girls tend to be
disliked by most of their classmates who find the malicious gossip and
other social aggressive behaviors quite unpleasant. Dingfelder, S.
(2006). Monitor on Psychology, Vol 37(4), 62-63.
~~ DePaul University shared a study on school belonging and
middle schools at the recent APA convention in Washington,
DC.
Their study looked at various school environments and programs that
were designed to reduce at-risk behavior and increase a sense of
belonging. Their premise is that the increased chaos and
stress
that frequently accompanies middle school is in itself, a
developmentally damaging environment for this age group. While many
stand alone projects such as DARE have not led to the results
anticipated, many schools are making big progress with drug prevention,
depression, and academic failure simply by creating more healthy school
environments. These environments are created
primarily by
actively making middle schools more accepting, increase a student's
sense of belonging by ensuring a sense of acceptance, inclusion and
respect from teachers and peers as well as strong encouragement for
participation. McMahon, S. et al (2005). School Belonging -
Social, Psychological and Academic Implications. A symposium
presented August 20th at the annual American Psychological Association
convention, Washington, DC.
~~ Living in a world with no choice is awful. It's worse than
awful - it's absolute misery. A little choice is
nice. A
little more choice is nicer still. A moderate amount of
choice
may even be better. But at some point in this process, the
tables
turn. At some point, we enter into a situation where there is
too
much choice. So much choice in fact, that we become paralyzed
and
unable to make any decision whatsoever. Too much choice can in fact be
overwhelming. While many see a link between this abundance of
choice in our modern society and an increase in mental illnesses such
as depression, we can also relate this to the classroom.
While
choice is one of the key components to successful classroom
instruction, be careful not to pass your students' threshold and enter
into the realm of paralysis. And of course different students
have different thresholds for choice tolerance. Schwartz, B.
(2005). Paradox of Choice: Why more is less. Invited address,
August 29th at the annual American Psychological Association
convention, Washington, DC
~~
If you are teaching, working or involved with
high school
populations, particularly at-risk and high free-lunch populations, it's
time to look at the new wave of research coming out on the STAR project.
If you are not familiar with the name, the STAR project was started by
the state of Tennessee in 1985 and involved their entire state school
population. They randomly divided all incoming kindergarten
students into 3 groups: Group A would belong to small class
groupings (13
- 17 students), Group B would belong to regular full size classes
(22-26
students), Group C would belong to regular full size classes which
included a second adult (teacher aide). The program ran
through
3rd grade. All students went to regular full sized classes in the 4th
grade. The study involved nearly 12, 000 children
and the
study continues to track the students who were involved. The
results have been published
and analyzed periodically since the preliminary data was collected in
the early
1990's.
Early results of course showed us that children attending small classes
had a significant advantage in state assessment scores. The
advantage was particularly impressive with free-lunch and minority
populations. Another wave of results came out in the late 1990's
showing us that
small class size in the early years had enduring effects as the
children who came
from Group A (small K-3 classes) continued to have higher achievement
scores in middle school and high school and were much more likely to
take college admissions tests.
The latest research, out this year, now also shows us that apparently
those children who came from the small K-3 classes also were the ones
most likely to graduate high school and aspire to attend some type of
post-secondary school. The effects though were only seen for
those
students who attended AT LEAST 3 years of elementary school in small
classes. (This means that having only small kindergarten and first
grade classrooms has no enduring effects on increasing achievement,
graduation rates or postsecondary attempts.) Those who attended all 4
of their first 4 years had a huge advantage. In fact, having had this
experience ended up being an even greater factor in high school
graduation than the child's academic achievement. To
summarize
the research, "Attending small classes for 3 or 4 years in the early
grades had a positive effect on high school graduation above and beyond
the effect on early academic performance." (pg. 219)
This is very significant research for those of us in secondary
education. The effect of small (less than 17 students) classes in
elementary school is a major factor in how our students do in high
school. Apparently it is one of the biggest factors. Significant
enough that perhaps we need to be going to our school boards and
community with this data. Finn, J., Gerber, S., &
Boyd-Zaharias, J.
(2005). Journal of
Educational Psychology, Vol 97(2), 214-223
~~
Mothers greatly influence children's attitude
about
subjects in
school. But it is your actions Mom, not your words that play
the
strongest role. A German study, using 5th graders and their parents,
shows that it is the student's perception of their mother's values, not
necessarily the mother's reported beliefs that influence the
children.
Kids base their assumption on things like mother-child joint activities
and the mother's involvement in the school. Noack, P. (2004).
Journal
of Educational Psychology, Vol. 96(4), 714-722.
~~ Middle
and high school
educators may want to take a hard look at a study out by Walls
&
Little on school adjustment, success and well being among young
adolescents. Their study looked at the factors influencing school
success which comes from a strong personal belief system involving
motivation and personal agency (one's willingness to put forth effort
and confidence in one's ability). One of the strongest predictors of
school well-being was personal effort resulting from an internal
motivation and an understanding of the purpose for the learning. Of
serious issue is the strong data here showing once again that extrinsic
rewards-based instructional systems are extremely detrimental to the
learning process. In fact the more extrinsic rewards are
used,
the
lower the school grades, the more negative student affect, and the less
the sense of well-being. Administrators may want to use the
chart
on
page 28 of this study for staff development consideration.
The
chart
graphically shows the relationships between school well-being, affect,
school grades and the source of motivation as well as personal agency
issues. It is certainly a point for
discussion!
Walls, T. &
Little, T. (2005). J. of Ed Psych. Vol 97(1),23-31.
~~ Preservice
teachers
start out with a very favorable view of critical thinking activities
for both high and low-ability students. After finishing their
teacher
education programs, these new teachers have lost support for the use of
critical thinking assignments and this low level of support continues
fairly unchanged through inservice and many years of teaching
experience. This, from research conducted by Bruce Torff at Hofstra
University. His study of over 400 teachers from early in
their
education through 10 years of teaching experience shows that support
for the use of critical thinking erodes quickly through teacher
education programs and never regains strength. While most pre
and
inservice teachers find critical thinking activities valuable for both
high and low-ability students, inservice teachers tend to use critical
thinking activities less for low ability students and view them as more
beneficial for high-ability students. Torff, B.
(2005). J.
of Ed
Psych. Vol 97(1), 13-22.
~~ Many have criticized
schools for not modeling life in that learning and problem solving
tasks are too structured whereas in real life, problem-solving is
rather ill-structured and ambiguous requiring a dependance on one's
ability to infer, make decisions and identify reliable sources of
information. But a new study compared student's self-efficacy for
learning and problem solving on both ill-structured and well-structured
learning activities. They found that many high-ability students found
well-structured tasks difficult and that gifted students may need a lot
of support in the early stages of well-structured (think basic, C
layer) tasks. On the other hand, lower ability students found
the
ill-structured (think B and A layer) tasks more difficult in the
beginning, but as they gained confidence in their skills, they gained
in their feelings of both performance and learning
self-efficacy.
Lodewyk, K. & Winne,P. (2005). J. of Ed Psych. Vol
97(1), 3 -
12.
~~
The same issue of the
Psych Bulletin (Nov 1999) has an article from Ray Nickerson giving
suggestions on ways to help students with social communication
difficulties. The article reviews how effective communication requires
that people have an accurate understanding about what the other person
already knows. Underestimating or overestimating another person's
knowledge leads to inept social conversation. This information may be
taught to children who are struggling with social interaction.
Nickerson, Raymond 1999 (Nov), Vol 125 (6),737-759.
~~
Jacquelynne Eccles at the University of
Michigan is researching why students lose so much of their motivation
when they move from the sixth grade to the seventh grade. Traditionally
it's been blamed on hormones and an adolescent detachment from adults.
But Eccles research found that much of this change is due to
developmentally inappropriate teaching techniques. Her study showed
that teachers at any secondary level who used controlling disciplinary
techniques, had less emotional involvement with the students and did
not focus on challenging cognitive tasks created student populations
lacking in motivation. (Clay, page 52)
~~
APA President Robert Sternberg continues his
long running research on effective teachers which shows that students
do better when they are expected to do better by their teachers.
Sternberg has done a great deal of classroom research on the
self-fulfilling prophecy. (Clay, page 50).
~~
Why the disproportionate
number of black children in special education for mental retardation?
The cause could be the assessment tool. According to a study out of
Ohio State University, the standard, WISC-III (Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children- 3rd ed), tends to classify a disproportionate
number of Black children when compared to other instruments such as the
Cognitive Assessment System. Naglieri, J. & Rohahn, J. 2001.
Am.
Journal on Mental Retardation, Vol 106(4), 359-367.
~~
Anthony Pellegrini at
the University of Minnesota has a new article in the current issue of
the Journal of Educational Psychology on school bullies and victims.
The study of 5th graders shows 14% of them are bullies, 18% are
victims. Bullying was negatively correlated to peer popularity. Being
liked by classmates was found to be a protective factor against being a
victim of bullying. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1999 vol. 91
(2), 216-224.
~~
Research from the State
University of New York - Pottsdam shows that child mistreatment is
discovered by elementary teachers much more often than adolescent
mistreatment (in the home) by secondary teachers.
SLEEP
~~ By now, most of us are familiar with
the
relationship between neural plasticity, memory consolidation and sleep.
New research shows that the effectiveness of sleep's role in these may
in part be determined by prenatal influences - in particular a mother's
diet and alcohol consumption. These influence how much and when the
mother's system delivers choline to the developing child. High choline
delivery equals brains that run more efficient during sleep (high gamma
waves). Lower choline levels equals slower memory, particularly spatial
memory. Meck, W.. "Prenatal Choline Supplementation Facilitates
Hippocampal Activity During Adult REM Sleep". Symposium:
Sleep-Dependent Memory Consolidation and Neural Plasticity. Presented
at APA National Conference, Boston, MA Aug. 16, 2008.
~~ Most of us know that sleep is a vital
part of
the learning process. Humans and other primates are unique in that we
have 4 stages of non-REM
sleep allowing a more detailed process. Stage 1 sleep is a
"consolidation" period where the brain sorts through the events from
the day and weeds out those that it deems not important enough for long
term storage. Stage 2 sleep is a time for "pruning". Most memory
systems remain silent while the brain prunes out unneeded dendrites.
Our REM period is for synaptic strengthening. By far, the biggest
beneficiary of sleep is our brain. Datta, S. "Common Switch
for Dreaming and Memory Processing During Sleep": Symposium:
Sleep-Dependent Memory Consolidation and Neural Plasticity. Presented
at APA National Conference, Boston, MA Aug. 16, 2008.
~~
More fMRI research on how the sleepy brain
works (or
doesn't). Researchers at the Univ of PA had subjects take
various
visual tests while scanning their brains with a fMRI. Half
the
subjects were well rested, half were sleep deprived. In the sleepy
brains, regions in the frontal, parietal, visual sensory and thalamic
cortices all showed reduced activity. Occasionally though,
the
sleepy brains looked and functioned just like the well rested
brains. Apparently a sleepy brain alternates between normal
activity and an involuntary sleep impulse - a sort of "zoning
out" sensation when trying to complete a task while sleepy. Dinges, D.
(2008). Journal of Neuroscience, Vol 28, (21), 5519-5528.
~~
A new study out this month links childhood
obesity to
another source
- sleep deprivation. Third graders who sleep less than about
10
hours
a night, increase their risk of being obese by the 6th grade.
- a
40%
risk increase for each hour. Researchers say the study is one more
reason for parents to restrict caffeine use in children and remove
televisions from bedrooms. While certainly not the only factor leading
to child obesity, ensuring proper sleep is one way to control weight.
Lumeng, J, et al. (2007). Pediatrics, Vol.120 (5), 1020-1029.
~~
Why aren't children getting enough
sleep?
Researchers had thousands of children and adolescents keep diaries of
their day activities. Some interesting patterns were found.
African
American adolescents and Hispanic children got the least amount of
sleep. More time spent on meals and stricter household rules
predicted
the most amount of sleep for both children and adolescents.
The
diaries showed that children don't get enough sleep as they move into
adolescence, due to (in order of impact): earlier school start times,
more hours of homework, jobs outside the home, less time spent on
family meals and fewer household rules. Adam, E.; Snell, E;
Pendry, P.
(2007). Journal of Family Psychology, Vol 21(1) 4-19.
~~
Researchers are linking sleep apnea to minor
brain damage
and stuttering in childhood. Researchers in California have
found
that 38% of adults with sleep apnea had problems with stuttering during
childhood and that nearly all adults with sleep apnea have less gray
matter in brain areas associated with attention and memory.
They
hypothesize that the stuttering in childhood could lead to problems in
muscle development in the throat which leads to breathing problems
during sleep. Benson, (2003). Monitor on
Psychology,
Vol.24, (2), 15.
~~
How long and how well you sleep is
greatly determined by the hypothalamus area of your brain. A
variety
of chemicals or neurotransmitters are involved in the
process.
Neurons
in that area inhibit or prevent the firing of brain cells involved in
wakefulness. One of the earliest discovered chemicals
involved in
sleep is one known as GABA. UCLA is doing research showing us
that a
great deal more chemicals are actually involved in this process of
sleep. In fact you can induce sleep by inhibiting groups of
neurons
that may contain either histamine, norepinephrine, serotonin,
hypocretin or glutamate. Hypocretin is one of the more recent
discovered chemicals involved in narcolepsy. Siegel, J.
(2004).
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. Vol 65 (6), 4-7.
~~ Are
television and
video games to blame for bad dreams and nightmares in children and
teens? Not according to a large study in Belgium involving
over
2500
adolescents. They found that while 33% of adolescents have
nightmares
involving things they saw on television, 60% of them reported pleasant
dreams involving television programs. Video games were
associated
with
nightmares in some teens, but the majority associate pleasant dreams
with video games. Van den Buick, J. (2004). Dreaming, Vol
14(1),
43-49.
~~
Research continues to
be published showing the importance of sleep to "cement" new knowledge
into the brain. One study out of Harvard Medical School shows that
certain types of learning (discrimination) were hindered when students
were sleep-deprived right after learning. Even when later allowed to
catch up on the deprived sleep, their test performance did not improve.
Learning and sleep go hand in hand. Stickgold, R., et. al. 2000. Nature
Neuroscience, Vol 3(12) 1237-1238.
~~
"Good sleep is the best predictor of life span
and quality of life" says James Maas at Cornell University. Pretty
strong words from this month's issue of APA's Monitor. The article is
about one of the nation's leading sleep researcher's giving a
presentation in Washington DC for congress. The presentation was given
not by Maas, but by Dr. David Dinges who has been studying the field
for years. He is trying to advise legislators on the seriousness of the
relationship between sleep and public health. The research has been
plentiful for the last several years. Sleep deprived people can't
think, remember, learn or react. Winerman, L. (2004). Monitor on
Psychology, Vol 35(7), 61.
~~
Snoring in children may
be cause for concern. At least that's the conclusion in a new study out
of the University of South Australia. When they studied over 2,000
children who snored versus those who did not, they found significant
cognitive differences. Compared to non-snorers, children who snored
showed significantly impaired attention and lower memory and IQ scores.
Blunden, S., et.al, 2000. Journal of Clinical & Experimental
Neuropsychology, Vol 22(5) 554-568.
~~
Remember back in college
when you debated whether to stay up late and study for tomorrow's test,
or go to sleep now and wake up early to study? Well, in a related study
in the same publication as above, a German researcher shows that the
"slow wave sleep" we get in the early part of the evening is really
important for initiating memory storage. The later REM periods only
help cement in the memory. In an interesting study, they taught one
group of students new material before bed, then let them sleep for 3
hours, woke them and tested them. They did great. The second group
slept first, then were woken during the night for the training, then
allowed to sleep 3 more hours, then tested. They did not learn the
material. Apparently that beginning stage of the night's sleep is what
really sets the brain up for storing new information. Born, J. 2000.
Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, 1335-39.
~~
In a study out of the
Italy, researchers looked at whether the amount of sleep was more
important than uninterrupted sleep for memory. They tested verbal
memory storage by presenting information before sleep then letting
students either sleep through the night, sleep with interruptions
frequent enough to disrupt the cycles of sleep, or sleep with
interruptions spaced between the natural flow of their sleep cycle. The
memory retrieval the next morning was only a problem for the students
whose cycles were disturbed. Their conclusion: the cycling of REM and
Non-REM together is more important than just sleep amounts for memory
formation of verbal information. Ficca, G., et al. 2000. Behavioural
Brain Research. Vol 112(1-2), 159-163.
~~
Depriving people of sleep impedes their
ability to form memories. So says researchers at Boston's Harvard
Medical School. Their research shows that in order to improve
performance on a new task learned, you must have sleep the first night
after learning the material. If students do not get sleep until 21
hours after learning the material, their performance on the task is
severely impaired, even if allowed to catch up for lost sleep. In fact,
even after two full nights of catch-up sleep, the students could not
perform as well. Apparently, the first day after learning is a critical
period for wiring the new information into the brain. Stickgold, R.
2000. Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, 1237-38.
~~
Sleep deprivation and
sleep habits do correlate with academic grades. A study out of
Worcester, MA, shows that students who received low grades (C's, D's,
F's), obtained about 25 minutes less sleep and went to bed an average
of 40 minutes later on school nights than students with high grades
(A's and B's). Adolescents who slept less than 7 hours reported
increased daytime sleepiness, depressed mood, and behavior problems.
Wolfson, A. 1998. Child Development, Vol 69(4) 875-887.
~~
Good news from the
Washoe Sleep Disorders Clinic in Reno, Nevada (a good place for a sleep
disorders clinic if you ask me:>). Short-term sleep deprivation
does
not impair cortical function. While it has been shown many times that
long term sleep deprivation interferes with test taking, attention and
task completion, apparently sleep deprivation for shorter periods of
time do not. Binks, et.al, Sleep, 1999(May), V. 22(3), 328-334.
SMOKING
~~
Nicotine degenerates
certain neurons in the central regions of the brain. As with other
drugs, grey matter neurons appear to degenerate faster than white
matter. (Apparently the "white" fatty cover offers some protection).
Carlson, J. Neuropharmacology. 2000. vol 39(13), 2792-2798.
~~
Researchers are
looking for clues that may predict smoking and alcohol risk in early
adolescents. It appears that the clues vary by gender. Girls who show
negative moods such as anger and anxiety or reported (through
electronic diaries) feelings of being hassled or sad are at a greater
risk for smoking and using alcohol. For boys, depression and sadness
tended to lessen the likelihood of smoking. Whalen, C. et al. (2001).
Health Psychology. Vol 20(2), 99-111.
~~
Many people who smoke
believe it increases their memory performance. What is really happening
is that smokers' brains become dependent on the nicotine for memory
function. During times of abstinence (between cigarettes), smokers
actually lose memory function. This function resumes with the nicotine
use, thereby giving them a false feeling that smoking improves memory.
Tait, R. et. al. 2000. Addiction. Vol95(3) 437-446.
~~
Adolescents who smoke
are at a much higher risk for anxiety disorders. Heavy smoking is
associated with agoraphobia, anxiety and panic disorders. Johnson, J.
et. al. 2000. J. of the American Medical Association, Vol 284(18)
2348-2351.
~~
Cigarette smoking
during pregnancy may lead to hyperactivity in the child. In rat
studies, nicotine exposure during the pre-natal period led to
significant overactivity after birth. Thomas, J. et.al. 2000.
Neurotoxicology & Teratology, Vol 22(5) 695-701.
~~
Heavy smoking is rare in
persons with no history of mental illness. (There's a bumper sticker
for your classroom!) Lewinsohn, P. 2000. Nicotine & Tobacco
research, Vol 2(2) 121-131.
STRESS
~~
Acute (short term) stress increases memory and
learning. Chronic (long term) stress shrinks regions of the pre-frontal
cortex and the hippocampus. Chronic stress also suppresses
neurogenesis (the repair/rebuilding of neurons) in the hippocampus -
the region associated with memory storage and retrieval. "Fear and
Anxiety: Breaking News from Neuroscience" - presented by
Michael
Davis, PhD, Emory University, August 11, 2006, New Orleans, APA
Conference.
~~ Stress
causes neurons
to atrophy and die. A study out of Yale University shows the death of
neurons, particularly in the hippocampus region, as a result of stress.
The same study shows that antidepressant medications may increase the
chances of these cells survival. Duman, et.al., 1999. Biological
Psychiatry, vol 46(9), 1181-1191.
~~
Traumatic events
can sometimes leave a person with long term Post Traumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD). But sometimes not. Researchers at Dartmouth Medical
School have found one possible link for that difference. Following a
trauma, those persons whose brains secreted an increased amount of
noradrenaline (norepinephrine) during their REM sleep are more likely
to develop long term PTSD than those persons whose brains did not show
this increase during sleep. Mellman, T, et al. (2004). Biological
Psychology, Vol 55(9), 953-956.
~~
Loneliness can
make you sick. So say researchers in London. A study released this
summer shows that lonely people have difficulty with blood pressure,
increased natural killer cells produced under stress and higher
cortisol levels in the brain in the first half hour after waking. All
of these are associated with things that can influence your health.
Make it a point to help children and adults who may feel socially
isolated and alone. Steptoe, A. et al. (2004). Psychoneuroendocriology.
Vol 29(5), 593-611.
~~
Another study out of
Yale University fuels the effort to reduce stress in life. They have
found atrophy and death of cells in the hippocampus and the pre-frontal
cortex in response to stress. Antidepressant treatments have been found
to slow or even reverse the atrophy in these regions. Duman, Malberg
& Thome. Biological Psychiatry. 1999. vol 46(9), 1181-1191.
~~
There is a relationship
between your stress coping skills and immune system. According to the
Trimbos Institute in the Netherlands, acute stress (sudden,
short-lived) actually improves our immune system temporarily. But
chronic stress (long term) decreases the effectiveness of our immune
system. They point out that depression is particularily detrimental to
our immune system. Chronic stress occurs when problems outweigh our
coping skills. Stress reduction and coping skills may need to be an
integral part of our curriculum, especially with today's increasing
appearance of adolescent depression. Olff, Psychiatry Research, 1999,
v.85,1, 7-15.
~~
The Rockefeller
University released interesting findings on hippocampus damage due to
stress. Apparently stress, both acute and chronic, suppress growth of
dendrites and neuron maintainance in the hippocampus region specific to
episodic and semantic memory. It is not clear whether the cell loss is
permanant or a "reversible atrophy". McEwen. Annual Review of
Neuroscience, 1999, v22, 105-122.
STUDENT-CENTERED
CLASSROOMS
~~
Teachers are constantly warned against using
sarcasm with
students due to the ease with which it can be misinterpreted.
New
research on how the brain processes sarcasm shows just how complex it
is. While the left hemisphere is primarily responsible for
the
literal interpretation of what you hear, the right hemisphere, along
with areas of the frontal lobes interpret the social and emotional
aspects of what you hear. A specific region in the right
ventromedial area of the prefrontal cortex puts these two pieces
together. Damage to any of these areas affects a person's
ability
to understand sarcasm. Shamay-Tsoory, S. & Tomer,
R.(2005). Neuropsychology, Vol 19(3)
~~
A team of psychologists has compiled the data on
cooperative vs individual classroom models from the last several
decades. The culmination included research involving more than 17,000
adolescents aged 12 - 15 years from 11 countries. Their
findings:
students in classrooms that supported cooperative learning (group
projects, group study, group prep for exams) not only had better peer
relationships, they scored higher on academic tests and scored higher
on tests for problem-solving, reasoning and critical thinking. Students
from classrooms that supported individual and / or competitive work,
still maintained their social friendships but their academic scores
were lower and scores on problem solving and critical-thinking were
poorer. Roseth, C., et al. (2008) Psychological Bulletin, Vol 134(2).
~~
A study at Yale
University with 3rd through 8th graders, has shown again that
instruction involving analytical, creative and practical methods of
instruction combined, beats the traditional rote, memory-based teaching
technique. Students were divided into two groups, one given a
traditional memory based approach and one with the three above
mentioned techniques blended. In performance-based and memory based
multiple choice tests, the blended method was superior. Let's hear it
again for student-centered classrooms.
~~
The Journal of
Educational Psychology (Sept. 1999) includes a great study by Reeve and
Bolt (Sept 1999) on student-centered classrooms and the teaching styles
they exhibit. The teachers who use these teaching methods effectively
are what the researchers call "Autonomy-supportive" teachers as opposed
to "relatively controlling" teachers.
The
study documented
exactly what these autonomy-supportive teachers do in their classrooms
THEIR RESULTS-- these teachers:
**listened
more
**held
the instructional
materials less,
**resisted
giving
solutions,
**supported
the student's
intrinsic motivation
**verbalize
fewer
directives
**ask
more questions about
what the students wanted to do
**respond
more to
student-generated questions
**volunteer
more
perspective-taking statements.
In
addition, this study
substantiated previous studies' claims on the ADVANTAGES OF
STUDENT-CENTERED INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS. Research shows that students in
these types of classes are:
**
more likely to stay in
school
**
more likely to show
greater perceived academic competence
**
show enhanced creativity
**
show a preference for
optimal challenge
**
show greater conceptual
understanding
**show
more positive
emotion
**have
higher academic
intrinsic motivation
**
better academic
performance
**
higher academic
achievement
~~
Lehigh University in Pennsylvania demonstrated
that behavior problems in the classroom are reduced when students are
given a choice in the sequence of tasks. In other words, if you are
hesitant or unsure of how to offer choice of activities, try just
giving students a choice in the order in which they do something. Kern,
L. et al. (2001). Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, Vol 3(1),
3-10.
Are
you looking for hard
research to support the idea of student-centered classrooms? Here are a
few:
Benware
& Deci 1984.
The quality of learning with an active versus passie motivational set.
American Educational Research Journal, 21, 755-765.
Boggiano
et al., 1993. Use
of techniques promoting students' self-determination: Effects on
students' analytic problem-solving skills. Motivation and Emotion, 17,
319-336.
Deci,
Schwartz, et al.,
1981. An instrument to assess adults' orientations toward control
versus autonomy with children: Reflections on intrinsic motivation and
perceived competence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 642-650.
Deci
& Ryan, 1987. The
support of autonomy and the control of behavior. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 53,1024-1037.
Deci,
Nezlek, &
Sheinman, 1981. Characteristics of the rewarder and intrinsic
motivation of the rewardee. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 40, 1-10.
Flink,
et al, 1992.
Children's achievement-related behaviors: The role of extrinsic and
intrinsic motivational orientations. In A. K. Boggiano & T.S.
Pittman (Eds.), Achievement and motivation: a social-developmental
perspective (pp. 189-214). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Grolnick
& Ryan, 1987.
Autonomy in children's learning: An experimental and individual
difference investigation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
52,890-898.
Koestner,
Ryan, Bernieri,
& Holt, 1984. Setting limits on children's behavior: The
differential effects of controling versus informaitonal styles on
intrinsic motivation and creativity. Journal of Personality, 52,
233-248.
Patrick,
Skinner, &
Connell, 1993. What motivates children's behavior and emotion? Joint
effects of perceived control and autonomy in the academic domain.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 781-791.
Reeve,
1996. The
interest-enjoyment distinction in intrinsic motivation. Motivation and
Emotion, 13, 83-103.
Rigby
et al., 1992. Beyond
the intrinsic-extrinsic dichotomy: Self-determination in motivation and
learning. Motivation and Emotion, 16, 165-185.
Shapira,
1976. Expectancy
determinants of intrinsically motivated behavior. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 1235-1244.
Valleran,
Fortier, &
Guay, 1997. Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting:
Toward a motivational model of high school dropout. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1161-1176.
STUTTERING
~~
A new medication has
been shown to help adolescents who stutter. The University of
California at Irvine, in a study of 10 - 14 year olds, found that the
drug olanzapine was able to help children manage their stuttering.
Lavid, et. al. (1991). Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, vol 11(4),
233-236.
~~
If you are looking for
medical treatments for stuttering you may want to check a new study out
of the University of California at Irvine Medical center. Although in
the past, medications have had limited effect on stuttering, they have
found some success with Haloperidol and Risperidone. Lavid, Franklin
& Maguire. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 1999. Vol 11(4),
233-236.
SUBSTANCE
ABUSE
~~
The National Institutes of Health has funded a
couple of
studies through SUNY showing a possible cause for the high risk of
substance abuse during adolescence by those children whose mothers used
alcohol during pregnancy. Apparently, the brain of a
developing
child learns what is "good to consume" based significantly on what
flavors and chemicals it finds in the amniotic fluid and breast
milk. The learned taste fades somewhat as the person ages,
but is
still fairly strong in adolescence. The good news is that if these
teens are steered away from alcohol use during teen years, they may not
be so at risk for abuse as adults. Chamberlin, J. (2008).
Monitor
on Psychology, Vol 39(3), 12.
~~
More than half of all 8th graders have
experience with
alcohol. Studies show that children who drink prior to age
13,
increase their chances of having an alcohol dependence as adults by
38%. Alcohol use in adolescence is a serious
problem.
Besides contributing to thousands of deaths each year, alcohol use is
blamed for an increase in other at-risk behaviors. Prevention
is
tricky due to the differences in the way adolescents' brains
operate. Successful prevention comes from parent- school
cooperative projects which monitor behavior and provide alternative
activities. Meyers, L (2008). Monitor on
Psychology, Vol
39(1), 14.
~~
One of the biggest reasons many heroin addicts
drop out
of treatment is the side effects of the methadone treatment that's
traditionally been used in treatment centers. The National
Institute on Drug Abuse announced promising results in early trials of
a new drug called buprenorphine. The drug has much milder
side
effects and patients are more likely to complete treatment. Munsey, C.
(2007). Monitor on Psychology, Vol. 38(5), 14.
~~
New research out of London shows that the drug
marijuana, does in fact damage the brain. MRI brain scans
conducted
during administration of various components of the drug show that the
component, THC, produced some psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations
and paranoid delusions. The THC suppressed activity in the inferior
frontal cortex, which normally holds fear at bay. In persons
with
some
mental health problems such as schizophrenia, marijuana use could make
their symptoms worse. AP press release (Apr. 2007) at
psycport.com
"New findings back evidence of marijuana's damaging effect on brain."
~~
New research is showing a promising way to
identify
adolescents with a strong genetic predisposition to substance
abuse. Research has indicated for quite some time that a so
called "p300 amplitude reduction" seen in a brain scan can indicate a
person at risk for alcohol dependence. Now researchers are
using
this in adolescents, before any substance use begins and find that it
does indeed seem to indicate, especially in boys, an inherited
predisposition to substance abuse. Yoon, H. et al, (2006).
Addictive Behaviors, Vol 31(6), 1067-1087.
~~ Cannabis
(marijuana) and MDMA (Ecstasy) are two of the most widely used
recreational drugs. Italian researchers are now studying the
long
term
effects of using both of these drugs simultaneously. They
have
found
that prolonged use of marijuana and ecstasy used together are
associated with elevated impulsiveness, anxiety, obsessive compulsive
behavior, and psychotic behavior. Sala, M. & Braudam
D.
(2005).
Pharmacology, Biochemistry, & Behavior. Vol 81(2),
407-416.
~~ Researchers are now
theorizing
that enough evidence exists to link aggressive tendencies to brain
serotonin anomalies that result from cocaine use during adolescence.
Teens who use cocaine during this critical brain development period
risk perhaps permanent damage to the serotonin system in their brain
which can lead to aggression. Cunningham, K.
(2004).
Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol 118(5), 1143-1144.
~~ A
study in London, UK
is tracking long term, residual problems in former Ecstasy (MDMA) drug
users. They are finding that the psychological problems
associated
with that drug, such as deficits in verbal recall, moderately impaired
memory function, depression and phobic anxiety - can continue for years
even after the individual has stopped using the drug. Soar,
K,
Parrott, A, & Fox, H. (2004). Psychological Reports,
Vol
95(1),
192-196.
~~
Researchers at Wake Forest University in North
Carolina
have recently published an article discussing glue sniffing behavior in
teens and the risk of nerve damage. Glue sniffing remains
popular
with teens as a recreational drug, probably because it is cheap and
easy to obtain. However one of the under recognized risks of
this
is the potential to develop serious degeneration of neurons in the
peripheral nervous system. The chemical N-hexane, a component
in
these glues, can cause leg weakness and pain and with continued
exposure, can cause permanent disability. Becker, C. et al
(2004). Journal of Adolescent Health. Vol. 34(1),
94-96.
~~ As
has been covered here before, the popular recreational drug 3,4-MDMA
known as Ecstasy disturbs both the serotonin and dopamine levels in the
brain and has been linked to long term reduction in serotonin brain
levels which can lead to Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (among other
things). Researchers have also suspected that the chronic low levels of
serotonin may decrease gray matter volume in the brain as
well. Because most Ecstasy users are polydrug users
research has been difficult, but researchers at Harvard Medical School
have now used MRI scans to compare polydrug Ecstasy users to polydrug
non Ecstasy users. They found that indeed, reduction in
neocortical gray matter correlates with Ecstasy use. Cowan, R. et al.
(2003). Drug & Alcohol Dependence. Vol 72(3), 225-235.
~~ Fetal
Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is now seen in 1% of live births. FAS
is
associated with growth impairment, facial distortions and serious
problems with central nervous system function. Children with
FAS
have a high rate of other problems as well. In fact 40% of
FAS
children also have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mental
retardation occurs in 20% of FAS children and 30% of them have speech
and language disorders. Learning disabilities occur in one in
four and epilepsy is found in one in 10. The disorder is very costly to
treat as most of these children have life long problems. Early
treatment programs are needed and prevention programs need to be
strengthened. Burd., L. (2003). Neurotoxicology &
Teratology,
Vol. 25 (6), 681-688.
~~
Want to age your brain
quickly? Use cocaine and/or amphetamines. Older brains lose gray matter
in the frontal lobes as do brains whose owners use cocaine and
amphetamines (and they lose it much faster). Older brains lose gray
matter and volume in the temporal lobe. Cocaine users do it faster. In
fact, cocaine users lose brain volume at record speed. Bartzokis, G.
et.al. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging. 2000. vol. 98(2), 93-102.
~~
The recreational
drug Ecstasy is linked to long term reduction in brain serotonin levels
leading to depression and Obsessive -Compulsive Disorder. But
researchers in Germany find that the drug doesn't actually deplete the
brain's serotonin supply but rather changes the physical structure of
the neurons in the brains so that they are unable to receive the
serotonin. Quednow, B. et al. (2004). Neuro- psychopharmacology,
Vol29(5), 982-990.
~~
Caffeine dependence in
teenagers is becoming a school and community concern. The Minnesota
Medical School has been researching the issue. They looked at teens who
used caffeine on a daily basis. A large percentage (78%) reported
withdrawal symptoms when they reduced their consumption. Forty percent
of the teens in the study had tried, unsuccessfully, to reduce or
control their use, and 17% were unable to reduce their caffeine use
despite physical problems that it was causing them. Teens who have a
dependence on caffeine also have a higher rate of anxiety and a
slightly higher risk of depression. Bernstein, G. (2002). Drug
&
Alcohol Dependence. Vol 66(1) 1-6.
~~
Addiction can cause
serious brain damage to decision making regions of the brain. A new
study shows that persons who are addicted to substances (and even
gambling addicts) appear to have damage to the ventromedial region of
the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is associated with
decision making. Persons with damage specifically to the ventromedial
regions all show similar behaviors - they deny or are unaware that they
have a problem, and when faced with a choice between immediate reward
at the risk of future negative consequences, tend to choose the
immediate reward. So people with substance addiction exhibit similar
behaviors as people with damage to this brain region. Bechara, A.
(2003). Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol 19(1), 23-51.
~~
William Latimer, Johns Hopkins University is
leading promising research in adolescent substance abuse treatment. The
key to preventing relapse? - include parents in the therapy and
intervention. Adding a family-based component to traditional
cognitive-behavioral treatments makes a big difference in the long term
success rate of recovery. Watch for the study to be published this year
in "Drug & Alcohol Dependence."
~~
Apparently the effects of cocaine varies with
your gender - or at least it does if you're a rat. In rats, though both
genders showed an increase in activity under the influence of cocaine,
females rats had a much greater increase. Walker, Q. et al. 2001.
Neuropsychopharmacology. Vol 25(1) 118-130 .
~~
The drug MDMA, better known as "Ecstasy,"
continues to be researched. This time, a medical center in the
Netherlands shows even moderate use of this drug effects memory,
cognitive performance and serotonin production/distribution in the
brain. The more heavy the drug usage, the greater the damage. Verkes,
R. et al. (2001). Psychopharmacology, Vol 153(2), 196-202.
~~
In a related study, we find that though it
may cause women to be more active than men, cocaine apparently does
less physical damage to neurons and brain regions. When comparing men
and women's brains who have had comparable drug usage, there was
significantly more damage to the cells of male brains than female from
cocaine use. Kaufman, M., et al. 2001. Biological Psychiatry. Vol 49(9)
774-781 . ~~
~~
The drug known as
"Ecstasy" can interfere with memory. The drug alters the serotonin
receptors in various regions of the brain associated with memory.
Reneman, L. Psychopharmacology. 2000. Vol. 148(3) 322-324.
~~
Rumor has it (among
teens mostly) that the drug "Ecstasy" has only minor, short-term
negative effects. Nothing could be further from the truth. Research
shows this drug causes many long term effects including: persistent
changes in brain function, hostility, memory deficits, altered amygdala
and hippocampus function, cognitive impairments, serotonergic
neurotoxicity, cardiac arrhythmia, hyperthermia, depression, and
limited blood flow in the frontal and occipital cortex. Just to name a
few......(sources for these are
1.
Burgess, Ciara, et. al.
European Psychiatry. 2000 Aug Vol 15(5) 287-294 .
2.
Barrionuevo, M., et.
al. Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior. 2000 Feb Vol 65(2)
233-240.
3.
Gerra, Gilberto, et.al.
Biological Psychiatry. 2000 Jan Vol 47(2) 127-136.
4.
Shankaran, Mahalakshmi;
Gudelsky, Gary A. Psychopharmacology. 1999 Nov Vol 147(1) 66-72.
5.
Marston, Hugh, et. al.
Psychopharmacology. 1999 May Vol 144(1) 67-76.
6.
Obrocki, Jost, et. al.
British Journal of Psychiatry. 1999 Aug Vol 175 186-188.
7.
Morgan, Michael John.
Psychopharmacology. 1999 Jan Vol 141(1) 30-36.
8.
O-Shea, E., et.al.
Neuropharmacology. 1998 Jul Vol 37(7) 919-926.
9.
Liechti, Matthias E.,
et. al. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2001 Mar Vol 24(3) 240-252.
10.
Taffe, Michael A., et.
al. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2001 Mar Vol 24(3) 230-239.
11.
Gamma, Alex, et. al.
Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 2001 Feb Vol 21(1) 66-71.
12.
Verkes, Robbert, et.
al. Psychopharmacology. 2001 Jan Vol 153(2) 196-202.
13.
Byrne, Tom; Baker,
Lisa E.; Poling, Alan. Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior.
2000
Jul Vol 66(3) 501-508.
14.
Slotkin, T. A.;
Seidler, F. J.; Ali, S. F. Brain Research. 2000 Oct Vol 879(1-2)
163-173.
15.
Morgan, Michael John.
Psychopharmacology. 2000 Oct Vol 152(3) 230-248.
16.
Gamma, Alex, et. al.
Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000 Oct Vol 23(4) 388-395.
17.
Parrott, A. C.; Sisk,
E.; Turner, J. Drug & Alcohol Dependence. 2000 Jul Vol 60(1)
105-110.
18.
Tuchtenhagen, Frank,
et. al. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000 Jun Vol 22(6) 608-617.
~~
Although "crack babies"
often resemble children with ADHD, their behaviors and disabilities
differ. In a recent study, ADHD children were compared to children who
had tested positive for cocaine and amphetamines at birth (called PSE
for pre-natal stimulant exposure). The study involved testing accuracy
and reaction times. Children with ADHD as well as PSE children had more
errors than "normal" children. However, only the PSE children actually
had a slower reaction time. The ADHD children's errors were due to the
unpredictability of the task and wandering of attention, whereas the
PSE children's errors were completely random. Eghbalieh, B. et.al.
2000. J. of Attention Disorders, vol 4(1), 5-13.
~~
Rockville, Maryland has
found many biological similarities between violent persons and persons
with drug abuse. Deficits in the functioning of the prefrontal cortex
are found in both substance abusers and in violent behavior. Predictors
of both behaviors are: impulsivity, poor decision-making ability,
disinhibition, and inability to assess consequences. Fishbein, D. 2000.
Criminal Justice & Behavior, vol 27(2), 139-159.
SUICIDE
~~
Columbia University has
released an amazing study showing the neurobiology differences between
depressed, non-suicidal people and depressed, suicidal people.
According to the study, serotonin levels are responsible for setting
the threshold which triggers suicidal behavior. In suicide attempters,
serotonin metabolites are low in cerebrospinal fluid and there is low
serotonin activity in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. What makes
this study amazing is that the researchers point out that serotonin
levels can be seen and measured through current PET scan technique.
This implies there may be a way to actually "see" if a depressed person
is a strong candidate for suicide in time for drastic intervention.
~~
Oxford University is in search of the suicide
gene. Realizing that there is some genetic factor in suicide and other
self harm behavior, researchers looked for the gene or genes associated
with the risk. They were able to isolate one of the genes related to
serotonin production, the TPH A779C allele as being more common in the
genome of "deliberate self-harm persons". Pooley, E et al. (2003).
Psychological Medicine, Vol. 33(5), 775-783.
~~
Researchers at Columbia University have teamed
with the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention to look at how
media coverage of adolescent suicide influences copycat suicides. They
found that media coverage played a role in about 10% of teen suicides.
Persons working with adolescents need to team with the media for
responsible coverage when these tragedies occur. Coverage that should
be avoided: details of the method of suicide, indicating suicide in the
headline, using photos of the suicide victim, or glorifying the act.
(presented by Daniel Romer, director Adolescent Risk Communication
Institute, U of PA).
TEENAGERS
~~ Social stress during adolescence has
long been associated
with psychopathology in adults. Researchers are using rats to try to
link specific
types of stress (in this case "social defeat" stress) during
mid-adolescence to adult
behavior problems in males. Rats who experienced social defeat in
adolescence
were more anxious as adults, more excitable in novelty situation and
had significant
altered monoamine levels in the limbic areas of their brains -
dopamine,
norepinephrine and serotonin levels were all changed compared to the
rats in the
control group. Watt, M. et al (2009). Behavioral Neuroscience. Vol
123(3), 564-576.
~~ Academic performance often begins to
decline during
middle school - a most critical time of adolescent development.
Parental
involvement has long been studied as a major factor in middle school
student achievement. New research now looks to see specifically, what
factors of parent involvement make the biggest difference on
achievement.
Of the many factors examined, "Academic socialization" (emotional
support
and parents view of academic study) had the greatest effect on
achievement.
Nearly all types of parental involvement had a positive effect. The
lone factor
that did NOT positively effect achievement? - parental help with
homework.
Hill, N. & Tyson, D. (2009). Developmental Psychology. Vol
45(3), 740-763.
~~ Girls born to teenage mothers are at greater risk for
becoming teenage mothers themselves. A new study tracked 1500
young adolescent girls (some born to teenage mothers and some to older
mothers) for 6 years. The results - girls born to teenage mothers were
66%
more likely to also become a teenage mother, even after factoring out
other influences such as school performance, family status, and race.
The risk factors associated with teenage mothers include deviant peer
norms, low parental monitoring, Hispanic race and poverty. Meade, C. et
al (2008). Health Psychology. Vol 27(4), 419-429.
~~ While no one wishes poverty on their
children, the other end of the spectrum is not much fun either. New
research from across the psychology spectrum show that children from
affluent (incomes over $120,000) families are more likely to be
depressed and abuse substances. Affluent families tend to overemphasize
children's accomplishments, grades and ivy-league chances. These
factors increase anxiety and depression in adolescents. Novotany, A.
(2009). Monitor on Psychology, Vol 40(1),pg 50.
~~ Students tend to lose self-confidence
in
their ability to manage their own academic activities as they move
through the educational system. Particularly as they move from junior
to senior high school, the increasing academic demands, complexity of
topics, and increasing social activities can overwhelm and confuse may
adolescents.
New research shows that those students who have high self-efficacy in
their ability to regulate their own thoughts, motivation, affect and
action, tend to make better grades, and are less likely to drop out of
school. So while much research has been done on student's self-efficacy
for academic achievement, this is the first study to look at student's
self-efficacy for self-regulation. Caprara, G., et al. (2008). Journal
of Educational Psychology, Vol 100(3), 525-534.
~~
While most of us appreciate having a friend or
co-worker
we can complain to, this so called "co-rumination" comes with risks
particularly for teenage girls. Extensive and excessive conversations
with friends about problems leads to increased good feelings about the
friendship, but it also leads to anxiety and depression.
Teenage
girls are much more susceptible to this than teenage
boys.
Rose, A. Carlson, W. & Waller, E. (2007).
Developmental
Psychology, Vol. 43(4), 1019-1031.
~~
The University of NH"s Crimes Against Children
Center has
released quite interesting and perhaps surprising research results on
stereotypic on-line predators. Despite how they may be
depicted
in media, most on-line predators are adults, soliciting teens, and are
quite up-front with their intentions. They spend a great deal
of
time developing a relationship with the young person who then truly
begins to feel that it is a valid romantic relationship.
Having
information or pages posted at social networking sites does NOT appear
to increase the risk of being a victim. The researchers
suggest
that rather than our current focus of warning young kids not to post
personal information on-line, our focus should be with teens and
warning them of the dangers of developing romantic relationships via
internet chat rooms and instant messaging. Wolak, J. et al.
(2008) American Psychologist, Vol. 63, No.2 .
~~
The American Psychological Association's task
force on
the "Sexualization of Girls" has released it's report. Their report
finds that emphasis on an unattainable body image damages the health
and self-image of girls and young women, resulting in an increase in
eating disorders, anxiety and depression. They are most concerned with
the objectification of pre-teen girls. The task force recommends
stronger programs to encourage sports participation, artistic
expression and meditation which can all help to improve girls'
healthier self image. Munsy, C & Meyers, L. (2007). Monitor on
Psychology, Vol 38(9), 58-59.
~~
In the past century, the period termed "adolescence" has stretched from
what had been a 3 or 4 year period to a 10 - 15 year period.
This
is
due to earlier onset of puberty and a shift to delay young people
assuming adult responsibilities. This has left people and
institutions
who work with adolescents struggling to deal with this new longer
developmental time period.
~~ Due to a unique period of brain development, adolescents are prone
to intense emotions that override all logic and reason. This
is a
prime period for emotional - motivational learning.
~~ Despite the peak of physical health found in adolescence, mortality
rates for this age group increases 200% solely due to behavior and
emotion issues. They have an inconsistent ability to regulate
their
behavior.
~~
Also out of Ottawa - researchers are looking at
the
factors of "amotivation" in high school students. What
factors
are
involved in students lacking academic motivation, what are the social
antecedents and what can be done to improve the situation?
New
research indicates there are four different reasons (or categories) for
academic amotivation: (1)a student's belief about their
ability,
(2)beliefs about their ability to sustain sufficient effort, (3)value
places on the academic task, and (4)the specific characteristics of the
task. (I'll be covering this study in detail on the website in the near
future.) Legault, L., Green-Demers, I. & Pelletier, L (2006).
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 98(3), 567-582.
~~
Researchers in Russia have been studying
bullying behavior in junior high school students.
Specifically
they wondered if bullies and victims of bullying could be predicted by
looking for underlying psychological pathology. They looked
at
hundreds of adolescents aged 12 -15 and looked for correlations between
bully-victim problems and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
and
Conduct Disorder (CD). They found that teens who were bullies tended to
have CD symptoms and low self-esteem. Teens who were victims
tended to have ODD and low self-esteem, and teens who were both bullies
and victims, tended to have CD symptomology. Constantinos, M. &
Panayiotou, G. (2004). Aggressive Behavior, Vol
30(6),
520-534.
~~
Now that summer is
under-way, it always appears that new teen-age drivers are hitting the
city streets in wild abandonment. A new study out of Monash University
in Victoria, Australia shows that indeed, young drivers have problems
detecting and reacting to hazardous situations. The study shows that
new drivers are slow to recognize hazards, inefficient at the detection
and perceive them less holistically. In addition, young drivers
underestimate the risk posed by hazards and overestimate their ability
to deal with the hazard. Deery, Hamish (1999) Journal of Safety
Research, Vol 30 (4) 225-236.
~~
Teen pregnancy is an issue of concern to most
people in education. But what effect does teen pregnancy have on the
younger siblings of the teen mothers? Researchers tracked the younger
brothers and sisters of teen mothers and found that younger sisters in
particular are at a very high risk for early pregnancy themselves. On
average, siblings of teen parents spent 10 hours a week caring for
their sister's child and again in girls this was associated with a
sharp increase in drug and alcohol use as well. East, P. et al. (2001).
Developmental Psychology. Vol 37(2), 254-264.
~~
The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and
Alcoholism (NIAAA) has been using MRI brain imaging to show that
adolescents exhibit less brain response to the prospect of earning
rewards than adults do. Their research shows that while both adults and
teens show similar brain activity when actually receiving a reward,
adolescents apparently are not as "brain excited" about the prospect of
earning a reward. This is further research supporting the poor decision
making characteristics of the adolescent brain. Bjork, J. et al (2004 -
Feb 25). Journal of Neuroscience, vol 24(7).
~~
Adolescent puberty changes more than just
their bodies - the frontal lobes of the brain also undergo rapid
change. There is a synaptic explosion in this region beginning at about
11 years of age. This sudden brain activity also affects cognitive
function. Researchers at San Diego State University studied response
time in children, adolescents, and adults on a variety of tasks.
Beginning at age 11 or 12 and continuing for 3 years, they found a
gradual but steady decline in cognitive function and processing time.
By age 15 things had stabilized, with females maintaining slower
reaction times to process both faces and words compared to males.
McGivern, R. et al. (2002). Brain & Cognition, Vol 50(1),
73-89.
~~
Those of us who work with adolescents know the
problems they tend to have with decision making. The University of
Cambridge has shown that there are numerous regions of the brain
involved in the decision making process. These areas include the
orbitofrontal cortex (just below your eyes, behind the forehead),
regions of the limbic system (the striatum and amygdala) as well as the
brain chemical, dopamine. This research adds to the previous studies
showing involvement of the pre-frontal cortex as well. Problems in any
of these areas can result in poor decision making skills. It certainly
is a complicated process. Rahman, S. et al. 2001. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, Vol 5(6), 271- 277.
~~
The University of New
York shows again that direct or indirect, mom's attitude about
pre-marital sex influences adolescent behavior. The study of 751
inner-city African American 14-17 year olds, found that whether the
mother expressed her feelings through direct communication or indirect
message, adolescents' attitudes toward sex behavior tended to match
their mothers' attitude. Dittus, Jaccard & Gordon. Journal of
Applied Social Psychology. 1999 (Sept), vol.29(9), 1927-1963.
~~
A University of Chicago
study shows that the younger a child is when he shows conduct problems,
the more likely he/she is to show physical aggression, theft, and
vandalism during the teen-age years. Lahey, et. al, (1999). Journal of
Abnormal Child Psychology, vol. 27(4), 247-260.
TOURETTE'S
~~
Gordon Millichap at
Northwestern U Medical school has published documentation which accues
methylphenidate as a possible cause of tourettes syndrome. Among other
studies, Millichap shows the strong correlation between Methyphenidate
(ritalin) and the increase in tourettes. Developmental Medicine
&
Child Neurology, 1999,vol 41(5), 356.
~~
People unhappy with
current medical treatments of Tourettes (haloperidol, pimozide,
fluphenazine, and clonidine) due to the side effects, may want to look
at a new study out of Wayne State University. The study shows much
success in treating Tourettes with Baclofen/botolinum toxin type A with
few, if any side effects. The drug works by inhibiting release of
acetylcholine. Awaad, Yasser, Journal of Child Neurology, 1999, vol
14(5), 316-319.
~~
National Institute of
Health released information that new PET scan studies are showing
abnormal dopamine (a brain neurotransmitter) activity for persons with
Tourette's disorder. The problem tends to center in the frontal cortex
and midbrain. Ernst,et.al., J. of Am. Academy of Child &
Adolescent
Psy., 1999, v.38, 1, 86-94.
VIOLENCE
~~ While serious school violence in this
country
is rare, its
presence is frightening to students, teachers and community. Unsettling
are
the statistics that show in 81% of school shooting events, the attacker
told
someone about his plans - usually a friend, peer or sibling. Yet these
confidants chose not to disclose the information. Researchers at Penn
State
and Missouri State have given adolescents various hypothetical
situations
about a peer's plan to "do something dangerous" at school to see what
factors
influence this so-called "code of silence". Most students were more
likely to
take action on their own over confiding in a teacher or principal. High
school
students were less likely than middle schoolers to say they would
report the
information to someone. Students from schools with positive
relationships
between teachers and students and fellow classmates were more likely to
take
some action (their perception of a democratic school structure). The
study
shows how important it is for schools to take serious the relationships
between
all the people in the building as one of the strongest preventions of
school violence. Syvertsen, A., Flanagan, C., Stout, M. (2009). Journal
of Educational Psychology,
Vol 101(1), 219-232.
~~ Lead exposure in childhood continues to
be a
social problem in many arenas. New research indicates that lead
exposure prenatally as well as in early childhood can lead to a
significant decrease
in the brain's gray matter in early adulthood. Lead exposure, in males
in particular caused reduced volume in the prefrontal cortex. Other
research links early lead exposure to antisocial behavior in adulthood
as well. Exposure to lead before age 6 increases a person's chance of
being arrested for a violent crime in adulthood. Bellinger, D. (2008).
Neurological and Behavioral Consequences of Childhood Lead Exposure.
PLoS Med, 5(5), e115.
~~ One little-known expectation of our
Global
Warming is an increase in violent crime. Every 2 degree (F) increase in
global temperature equals an increase of 30,000 more victims of violent
crime, per year in the
US alone. Anderson, C. "Global Warming and Violence." Presented at APA
National Conference, Boston, MA Aug. 16, 2008.
~~No one argues the immense popularity of
video
games among middle-schoolers. However, as some 89% of all video games
include violence of some sort, concern is growing among parents and
educators as exposure increases. Much of this concern has been fueled
by recent research indicating that playing violent games increases
aggressive behaviors, emotions and thoughts, increases physiological
arousal and decreases prosocial behavior. There are some variables that
can provide a bit of a buffer. For example, parental limits help reduce
the effect. And multiple player, on-line games where the child belongs
to a "clan"
can have a pro-social effect. Gentile, D. and Anderson, C. "Violent
Videogame Effects: An Overview." Presented at APA National Conference,
Boston, MA Aug. 16, 2008.
~~ According to Dr Rodney Hammond,
director of
the Division of Violence Prevention at the CDC, youth violence is now
considered a public health issue as the CDC believes it is preventable.
Homicide / suicide is the 3rd leading cause of death in the US for
persons aged 15 - 35 (20,000 annual deaths). Rates are not stable
through US history, but rather run in peaks and valleys. While our last
"peak" period was in the mid 1990's, it was still lower than our
highest peak in the 1920s. "Violence Prevention: What Can We Assume
from a Public Health Perspective?" Address delivered August 15, 2008,
Boston, MA: APA National Convention.
~~
By middle school, the majority of children
living in
inner-cities in America have had first-hand experience with murders,
stabbings and other violent crimes. It's no surprise that
this
exposure has a significant effect on school performance and social
adjustment. Children who are exposed to community violence do have
lower GPA's, lower achievement test scores and a lower motivation for
academic performance. Swartz, D. & Gorman, A.
(2003).
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 95(1), 163-173.
~~
Violent video games may cause more violent
behaviors
in children than watching violent television and movies.
Researchers
have been studying the thoughts, emotions and behavior of young people
who regularly play violent video games. Even brief exposure
can
increase feelings of aggression. Students who spend significant time
with violent video games in junior / senior high school do exhibit more
aggressive behavior. The interactive component to the games
gives
them
a greater impact than watching violence on television. Anderson, C
& Dill, K. (2007). Journal of Personality &
Social
Psychology,
Vol 78(4).
~~
Researchers have known about the strong
correlation (and
causative influence) between television / video violence and violent
actions in boys since early tv research in the 1960's. But
the
last decade has added girls to the mix. Now there is very
strong
research linking violent television and video games with violent
behavior in BOTH girls and boys. "Ecological Perspective on
the
Origins of Violence in Boys and Girls" - talk presented by James
Garbarino, PhD, Loyola University, August 12, 2006, New Orleans, APA
Conference.
~~ The APA task force on "Zero Tolerance" policies in public school has
released its findings. Zero Tolerance policies are correlated
with increased behavior problems, lessened student-teacher
relationships, lower standardized assessment scores and an increase in
at-risk behavior in schools that use it. "Does Zero Tolerance
Positively or Negatively EffectStudent-Teacher Relations?" A
report presented by task force member Russell Skiba, PhD, Indiana
University at Bloomington, August 11, 2006, New Orleans, APA Conference.
~~
The average elementary school child in the US watches 28 hours of
television a week and will witness over 8,000 murders before they
finish elementary school. Wow! Psychologists and
the
American
Psychological Association are becoming concerned over the resulting
"desensitization to violence" and have concluded that this bombardment
of violence does lead to an increase in aggression in
children.
You
can read their recent article at: http://www.psychologymatters.org/mediaviolence.html
~~
This month's American
Psychologist has an excellent article exposing the increasing evidence
found in the scientific community regarding violence in the media and
violence in society while the media itself ignores, denies or plays
down the blinding evidence. The relationship is a strong one. There is
overwhelming evidence that violence in the media does in fact cause
violence in children and violence in our society. However, due to a
variety of reasons (not the least of which is economic) the news media,
both tv news and news periodicals continue to deny the evidence and
sway public opinion to allow it to continue unregulated. Buhmand
&
Anderson (2001). American Psychologist, vol 56(6/7), 477-489.
~~
Children who
watch violence on television are more likely to be violent as adults.
These results hold true for both girls and boys, without regard to
socio-economic class, parental education or intelligence. The influence
is particularly strong when the children identify with a character and
perceive the violent act to be an event that could happen in real life.
The longitudinal study conducted by the University of Michigan shows
that women who watched violent programs (as children) are four times as
likely to have thrown something at a spouse, responded to someone who
made them mad with hitting, choking or punching. Men who had watched
violent programs are 3 times more likely to have shoved, grabbed or hit
a spouse, or committed a violent crime. Huesmann, L. et al (2003).
Developmental Psychology. Vol 39(2), 201- 221
~~
According to several
studies out recently, violent and aggressive behaviors are not caused
by low self-esteem, but rather from a narcissistic personality (extreme
self-love) coupled with a threat to the ego. Current Directions in
Psychological Science. 2000 Feb Vol 9(1) 26-29. Aggressive Behavior.
1998 Vol 24(6) 421-438. Journal of Personality & Social
Psychology.
1998 Jul Vol 75(1) 219-229.